Compendium 4-6 Flashcards
1
Q
Why does the subject continue to breathe heavily after they have stopped exercising?
A
Depending on how hard the subject worked they may continue breathing heavily for a few minutes due to the oxygen debt incurred.
After exercise has stopped, extra oxygen is required to metabolize lactic acid (produced by anaerobic respiration) and replenish ATP, phosphocreatine (transfers phosphate to ADP to form ATP) and glycogen.
2
Q
What is the tidal volume of breathing?
A
Estimated volume of air inspired or expired with each breath
3
Q
What is a minute ventilation?
A
Total amount of air moved into and out of the respiratory system each minute
4
Q
Why do you think there is a change in respiratory rate and/or depth of breathing when you exercise?
A
When you begin exercising your muscles are working a lot harder than they were at rest and therefore require more energy and oxygen, and need to have more waste products removed.
Increasing the respiratory rate and depth of breathing increases the amount of air inspired; which increases the amount of oxygen available and carbon dioxide that is excreted.
5
Q
What are the 3 measurements obtained on vitalograph?
A
A. Forced Vital Capacity (FVC)
B. Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 second (FEV1sec)
C. Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 second expressed as a percentage of forced vital capacity e.g. FEV1 % = (FEV1sec / FVC) x 100
6
Q
What is a nomogram?
A
A chart that predicts lung capacity and FEV1% based on age, sex and height
7
Q
What are some examples of restrictive lung disease?
A
Pulmonary fibrosis, obesity, scoliosis
8
Q
What are some examples of obstructive lung disease?
A
asthma emphysema, bronchitis
9
Q
The lateral walls of the nasal cavity contain bony ridges with small passageways between these ridges. These ridges and passageways are named ‘conchae’ (concha is singular) and ‘meatus’, respectively.
What are the roles of the conchae and meatus?
A
To increase the surface area of the nasal cavity, create more turbulent airflow and increases the likelihood that air will come into contact with the mucous membrane (lining) of the nasal cavity.
10
Q
A
11
Q
Air becomes warmer and more humid as it passes through the nose. This is important because warm, humid air increases the efficiency of gas exchange in the lungs. How does the nasal cavity warm and humidify the air?
A
As air passes over the mucous membrane lining the nasal cavity, the mucous produced increases the moisture of air.
The air is warmed to body temperature by the many capillaries close to the surface in the nose, which carry warm blood (this is why your nose bleeds easily).
12
Q
How many cartilages does larynx consists of? How are they connected to each other?
A
9, connected by muscles and ligaments
13
Q
How many of the cartilages of the larynx are paired and how many are singular?
A
6 paired and 3 singles.
14
Q
Fill in the blank.
A
15
Q
Are the left and right lungs of equal size? What structure/s impact on the size of the lungs?
A
No, lungs are not the same size. The heart located to the left side of the thoracic cavity decreases the size of the left lung relative to the right. However, the right lung can appear shorter (superiorly to inferiorly) due to the presence of the liver (right lobe).
16
Q
Identify the organs of the abdomen that are in contact with the diaphragm. Do these organs impact on the lungs?
A
The liver and stomach are in contact with the diaphragm. The liver pushes the right lung superiorly.
17
Q
What is the role of cartilage in the bronchial tree?
A
Maintain a patent airway (i.e. keep the airway open)
18
Q
What is found directly behind the trachea?
A
Oesophagus
19
Q
Cartilage rings in the trachea are incomplete posteriorly. What completes the ring?
A
A muscle (the exact name not necessary, but it is the trachealis muscle)
N.B. Having a muscle at the back of the trachea (rather than cartilage rings) means that food can move down the oesophagus more easily.
20
Q
The trachea bifurcates into the right and left primary bronchi. What is the area where it bifurcates called?
A
Carina
21
Q
Examine the angles at which the primary bronchi leave the trachea. Are they symmetrical?
A
No, the right is more vertical than the left. This explains why foreign objects lodge more in the right bronchi than the left (i.e. easy pathway from trachea to right bronchi).
22
Q
The region where the bronchi, nerves, blood vessels and lymphatics enter or exit the lungs is called the _______
A
Hilum.
23
Q
Fill in the blank
A
24
Q
The epithelium changes from being _____________________, a common respiratory epithelium, early in the tracheobronchial tree to simple squamous in the alveoli for rapid diffusion of gases.
A
Pseudostratified ciliated epithelium
25
What are the 2 functions of pleural fluid?
1) Acts as a lubricant, allowing the parietal and visceral pleura to slide past each other as the lungs and thoracic wall move during ventilation
2) Helps hold the parietal and visceral pleura together; which means the lungs are adhered to the thoracic wall. This means when the chest expands (e.g. when we breathe in) the lungs are pulled out and expand as well. (like two panes of glass with water between them, it's hard to pull them apart)
26
What happens to the lung when you introduce air into the pleural cavity?
The lung collapses because the increased pressure of the air in the pleural space pushes against the lung tissue. This is called a pneumothorax.
27
What do you think red “lines” inside the alveoli represent?
Pulmonary capillaries
28
What is the benefit of having a simple squamous epithelium lining the alveoli and blood capillaries in the lung?
The respiratory membrane is very thin and allows very rapid diffusion of carbon dioxide and oxygen.
29
Oxygen and carbon dioxide move by ___________ diffusion
Passive
30
The nose traps dust and bacteria, so that the air that enters the lungs is clean. What features of the nose contribute to this?
The hairs at the entrance to the nasal cavity (external nares) start the filtering process for large particles. Mucous in the nasal cavity also traps unwanted particles, and cilia lining the nasal cavity sweep the mucous (with its trapped particles) back towards the pharynx to be swallowed. This prevents dust and other particles from entering the respiratory system.
31
How does smoking affect the processes of nose trapping dust and bacteria?
Smoking can change the lining of the respiratory tract and decrease the action of cilia. This means more particulate matter and bacteria can move deeper in to the respiratory tract.
32
The pharyngotympanic (Eustachian) tube opens into the nasopharynx. Into which other space does it open and what is the purpose of the Eustachian tube? (Hint: think of how your ears “pop” in an aeroplane?)
The Eustachian tube is normally closed, but it can open to let a small amount of air through to equalize pressure between the middle ear and the atmosphere (prevents damage to ear)
33
Describe the position of the lungs relative to the (1) liver, (2) sternum and (3) ribs using correct anatomical terminology.
The lungs are superior to the liver; Lungs are deep/posterior to the sternum; Lungs are deep to the ribs
34
What benefits are there of having the lungs encased in the ribcage?
Ribcage protects the lungs (vital organ).
Muscles of rib cage also assist in breathing in/out.
35
In order how air travel during inhalation: Secondary bronchi, terminal bronchioles, trachea, primary bronchi, respiratory bronchioles alveoli, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles
Trachea, primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles, alveoli.
36
Label the image with Secondary bronchus, trachea, primary bronchus, tertiary bronchus, bronchioles
37
What are the alternative names of the primary, secondary, and tertiary bronchi?
Primary - main bronchus;
Secondary - lobar bronchus;
Tertiary - segmental.
38
Why are bronchi given then alternative names? What is the relevance of these alternative names?
Each lung can be sub-divided into lobes and the lobes can be further sub-divided into segments. Each left and right main bronchi supplies air to each left and right lung, respectively; the lobar bronchi supply air to the lobes of the lungs; the segmental bronchi supply air to the segments of the lungs.
39
How would you distinguish anatomically between the respiratory and terminal bronchioles? What is the anatomical difference between the two?
The respiratory bronchioles have alveoli attached to them whereas the terminal bronchioles do not.
40
Some parts of the respiratory system are termed conductive and others are respiratory. What do they mean?
Conductive passages conduct air into the lungs but don’t participate in gas exchange.
Respiratory areas are involved in the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
41
What parts of of the respiratory system are termed conductive?
Trachea,
Bronchi (1°, 2°, 3°)
Bronchioles
Terminal bronchioles
42
What parts of of the respiratory system are termed respiratory?
Respiratory bronchioles
Alveoli
43
44
An__________ solution is one that has the same total concentration of solutes (osmolarity) as intracellular fluid (fluid inside a cell). This is approximately ___ milli-Osmols per litre (___ mOsmol/L)
Isotonic, 290
45
A ___________ solution has less solutes and more water molecules (is more dilute) compared to the inside of the cell.
hypotonic
46
___________ solution has more solutes and less water molecules (is more concentrated) compared to intracellular fluid.
Hypertonic
47
What substances need to move into and out of a typical cell?
Ions, water, proteins, nutrients, waste products, macromolecules, gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, cholesterol
48
Describe the arrangement of the phospholipid molecules?
The phospholipid molecules are arranged in a double layer with their polar heads (hydrophilic) facing the intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid, and their non-polar fatty acid tails (hydrophobic) facing the interior of the membrane
49
What are the roles of proteins in the cell membrane?
The membrane proteins help the cell to "communicate" with its environment. Some of these proteins are enzymes, or ion channels allowing certain ions to move through the cell membrane, or carrier molecules necessary for the transport of molecules across the cell membrane and or essential for cell-to-cell recognition.
50
What does the ‘fluid mosaic model’ of cell membranes mean?
This term refers to the theory that the cell membrane is not a rigid structure but is fluid (constantly moving) in nature and can change its shape and, to some extent, its composition over time.
For instance, the nature of the phospholipid molecules are influenced by diet and membrane proteins come and go depending on the metabolic state of the cell
51
The cell membrane can be described as the ‘gate keeper of the cell’. What does this mean?
The cell membrane is a highly selective membrane.
It controls what can pass across in, either into or out of the cell.
The cell membrane determines what substances pass, in what amounts and at what time
52
Molecules such as oxygen and carbon dioxide move across the cell membrane by diffusion. Define diffusion?
This is when solute molecules move passively from one region to another down their concentration gradient i.e. there is net movement of molecules from a region of high solute concentration to a region of low solute concentration
53
What is meant by facilitated diffusion? Is it an active process or passive process?
Facilitated diffusion is a passive process and does not use cellular energy.
Facilitated diffusion is where a molecule is "helped" or "facilitated" to cross the cell membrane by use of a carrier/channel protein. The movement is always down the concentration gradient, like simple diffusion. This process is necessary because the molecules are either too big or too polar to cross the lipid bilayer of the membrane independently.
54
Give an example of a substance that crosses the membrane via facilitated diffusion with the help of a carrier protein.
Glucose
55
What is the name for the process by which water crosses the cell membrane? What are names of the channels used by water to cross the cell membrane?
Process = osmosis; Channels = aquaporins
56
When is the process of active transport required? Does it use cellular energy?
This is required when a solute moves "up" its concentration gradient (from low solute concentration to high solute concentration).
It requires a carrier and requires energy, ATP, to drive the process
57
Give an example of two substances that are moved across the membrane in active transportation. For each substance describe the concentration on either side of the membrane, and which direction the active transport would move them.
The Na+/K+ pump in the cell membrane is an example here where Na+ is constantly pumped out of cells and K+ pumped into cells. Both ions are moved against their concentration gradients.
Na+ concn ~140 mmol/L in extracellular fluid & 10 mmol/L in intracellular fluid
K+ concn ~150 mmol/L in intracellular fluid & 4 mmol/L in extracellular fluid
58
Cellular Respiration involves breaking down the _______ molecule into ___________and ____________ to produce energy the cell.
What is this energy used for?
Glucose, carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O).
Energy for powering cellular processes like protein synthesis and transport.
59
What is the equation of cellular respiration to produce energy?
C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + 36-38 ATP
60
What are the 3 stages of cellular respiration?
1. Glycolysis
2. Citric acid cycle
3. Oxidative phosphorylation
61
What is the main role of glycolysis and citric acid cycle in the big picture?
Break down glucose and store the energy obtained from breaking these chemical bonds in molecules (e.g. NADH, FADH2) that can be used in the last stage, oxidative phosphorylation.
62
What is the main purpose of oxidative phosphorylation?
To produce large amounts of energy in the form of ATP
63
Total number of ATP produced per molecule of glucose is approximately ________.
_____ x ATP are from glycolysis, ______ x ATP from the citric acid cycle and _______ ATP from oxidative phosphorylation
36-38, 2, 2, 32-34
64
Where in the cell does glycolysis take place?
Cytoplasm
65
How do cells derive energy during glycolysis?
Break down (oxidation) of nutrients such as glucose
66
What is the energy currency of the cell?
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
67
What happens to the glucose molecule when it enters the cell during glycolysis?
It is phosphorylated i.e. 2 phosphate molecules are added
68
How many molecules of ATP are used during the initial stage of glycolysis?
2
69
What is the 6-carbon sugar diphosphate molecule split into?
2 x 3-carbon molecules
70
What do the 3-carbon sugar molecules become?
Pyruvate or pyruvic acid
71
How many NET molecules of ATP are formed during glycolysis?
2 x ATP (4 ATP minus 2 used)
72
In what organelle in the cell does the citric acid cycle occur? In what part of this organelle does the citric acid cycle occur?
Mitochondrion; matrix of mitochondria
73
What is formed from the 2x pyruvate molecules during the Krebs cycle?
Acetyl-CoA
74
What is produced during the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA during Kreb Cycle?
CO2 and NADH
75
Carbon dioxide is released from the 6-carbon molecule to form a 5-carbon compound. What else is formed during this step during the Kreb's cycle?
NADH
76
A second reaction occurs where the 5-carbon molecule becomes a 4-carbon molecule producing NADH and CO2. What else is produced?
ATP
77
Finally the 4-carbon molecule is further oxidised to form what two molecules?
FADH2 and NADH
78
Where in the cell are the electrons from NADH and FADH2 transferred to electron carrier proteins during oxidative phosphorylation (Electron transport chain)?
Inner mitochondrion membrane
79
What does the transfer of electrons from NADH and FADH2 at the inner mitochondrion membrane lead to?
Transport of H+ ions across the mitochondrial wall membrane
80
What is the molecule that finally accepts the electrons? What molecule is then formed? (during oxidative phosphorylation)
Oxygen, and water is formed
81
Protons that are transferred through the mitochondrion membrane flow back across the membrane through the ATP synthase channel. What does this process produce? (during oxidative phosphorylation)
ATP
82
How much ATP is formed during oxidative phosphorylation?
32-34, depending on the cell type
83
Fill in the blank with 32-34 x ATP, 2 x ATP, 2 x Pyruvic acid, 6 x NADH, Glucose, H20.
1. Glucose
2. 2 x ATP
3. 2 x Pyruvic acid
4. 2 x ATP
5. 6 x NADH
6. H2O
7. 32-34 ATP
84
Name the process that occurs in your body cells that converts food into energy.
Cellular respiration
85
Name the carbohydrate that is preferred by the cell to produce cellular energy.
Glucose
86
What is the overall goal for cellular respiration?
To make ATP, the energy currency of the body
87
What does ATP stand for and how is it useful for a cell?
ATP = Adenosine triphosphate - a high-energy phosphate molecule.
ATP stores energy in a way that can be used by the body
When ATP is broken down this energy is released and is used to drive many chemical reactions in the body.
ATP hydrolysis: ATP → ADP + inorganic phosphate (Pi )+ energy
88
What does glycolysis mean?
Glycolysis means "breakdown of glucose". Glyco = glucose, lysis = to break
89
At the end of glycolysis, how many ATP, pyruvate and carrier proteins (NADH) are produced?
The end results for 1 molecule of glucose metabolised in glycolysis are: a gain of 2 ATP (4 ATP minus 2 ATP), 2 pyruvate molecules, 2 NADH molecules
90
What happens to the products of glycolysis if oxygen is present?
The pyruvate and NADH molecules are transported into the mitochondria for further processing in the citric acid cycle
91
What happens to pyruvate to prepare it for the Citric Acid Cycle?
Once in the mitochondria, each pyruvate molecule is oxidised to form acetyl coenzyme A (Acetyl CoA) + NADH + CO2
92
The citric acid cycle is a multistep process. What is the net outcome of the cycle for every glucose molecule i.e. how many ATP, CO2, and carriers, NADH and FADH2 are produced, including the conversion of pyruvate to Acetyl CoA)? Remember every glucose is broken down into two pyruvate molecules, so the citric acid cycle turns twice for every glucose molecule
Each glucose molecule produces: 2 ATP, 6-8 NADH, 2 FADH2, 6 CO2
Explanation
Every turn of the cycle = 1 ATP + 3 NADH + 1 FADH2 + 2 C02
2 cycles = 2 ATP + 6 NADH + 2 FADH2 + 4 C02
Then add the 2 NADH and 2 C02 from the conversion of 2 pyruvates to acetyl CoA at the start
93
Cellular respiration uses the carrier molecules NADH and FADH2 to carry the hydrogen ions and associated electrons, which have been collected from glycolysis and citric acid cycle to the next step. What is this step called?
The electron transport chain
94
This final step of electron transport chain/oxidative phosphorylation uses oxygen, the hydrogen ions and electrons to form what?
Water (H2O)
95
What does the term oxidative phosphorylation mean?
Oxidative phosphorylation refers to the pathway where energy liberated by the movement of electrons thru the electron transport chain in the mitochondria is coupled with the synthesis of ATP
96
Summarise the process of cellular respiration including the major molecules required and produced. Include how many ATP are produced in glycolysis, the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation.
1. Glycolysis
1 glucose molecule is metabolised into 2 pyruvate molecules + 2ATP + 2NADH.
2. Citric acid cycle
2 pyruvate molecules are oxidised into 2 acetyl CoA molecules.
The 2 acetyl CoA molecules enter the citric acid cycle producing 2 ATP, 6-8 NADH, 2 FADH2, 6 CO2
3. Oxidative phosphorylation
uses energy liberated from electron transfer to synthesise ATP. Oxygen is the final electron acceptor and combines with the H+ form H2O. 32-34 ATP molecules are produced
97
98
True or false: water will move in the direction of a higher solute concentration. Hint: remember the difference between solute and solvent
True. A solution with a higher solute concentration has a lower concentration of water molecules, so water moves towards the lower concentration of water molecules to try and even things up)
99
What is meant when we say a solution is isotonic?
An isotonic solution has the same tonicity (solute concentration) as the cell cytoplasm, such that if placed in such a solution there is no NET movement of water into or out of the cell and as a consequence the cell neither shrinks nor swells. An isotonic solution is 290 mOsm
Test tube 2 is isotonic because the number of solute particles inside the cell and outside the cell is the same.
100
____________________ (a kind of disorder) affects the lungs and the digestive system and it is caused by the abnormal transport of water, chloride and sodium across the cell membranes of epithelial cells, due to thick mucus built up that block the protein channel.
Cystic fibrosis
101
What type of epithelium lines blood capillaries allowing for quick diffusion of gases?
simple squamous
102
What components make up the circulatory system?
Pulmonary and systemic circulation
103
Which one of the following chamber first receives freshly oxygenated blood?
Left atrium
104
Which one of the following forms the thickest layer of the heart wall?
Myocardium
105
What one of the following is an alternative name for the right atrioventricular valve?
tricuspid valve
106
From which two structures does the pulmonary semilunar valve prevent backflow of blood?
pulmonary trunk into right ventricle
107
Which vessel brings deoxygenated blood from the upper body into the right atrium?
superior vena cava
108
What is the name of the valve between the right atrium and right ventricle?
tricuspid valve
109
What are the three layers of tissue that make up blood vessels from the innermost to the outermost?
tunica intima, tunica media and tunica externa
110
What type of primary tissue makes up the tunica externa of blood vessels?
connective tissue
111
What does Doppler machine do?
A quick and non-invasive way to assess blood flow velocities in arteries. It assesses blood flow to the foot by placing it on the dorsalis pedis artery. It is also used regularly when monitoring foetal heart rate.
112
What's a sphygmomanometer?
113
What is systolic blood pressure?
It is the pressure caused by your heart contracting and pushing out blood.
114
What is diastolic blood pressure?
Pressure when your heart relaxes and fills with blood
115
How do you define ‘pulse’?
The pressure caused by the ejection of blood from the left ventricle.
This pressure travels along the arteries in your body to create pulse points at different parts of the body.
116
Why do you have pulse points on certain parts of the body but not others? e.g. You can feel a pulse on the inner side of your wrist but why don’t you feel a pulse point on your nose?
Pulse points are areas where large arteries in the body are closer to the skin’s surface, or close to or on top of bone i.e. they are in superficial places
117
Why do you think it not advised to use the thumb to take a pulse?
The thumb has a pulse
118
What are these pulse points called? (the ones pointed)
119
Why do we need to increase cardiac output with exercise?
To supply the cells (skeletal and cardiac muscle), which are working a lot harder than they were at rest, with the extra oxygen and nutrients they need, and to remove wastes.
120
What features could you use to distinguish anterior from posterior of a heart?
The pulmonary trunk is one of way to differentiate between anterior and posterior side of the heart: from the anterior view, you will see the large pulmonary trunk which sits anterior to the large aorta. Another technique to differentiate between the anterior and posterior side is to identify the pulmonary veins on the posterior view which makes this side look “messy” compared to the anterior view.
121
Red blood cells carry oxygen to all the cells in the body. What are the structural specialisations of red blood cells which act to increase their surface area and thus their oxygen-carrying capacity?
No nucleus and a biconcave shape.
122
How do red blood cells carry oxygen?
Oxygen is attached to the haemoglobin protein found in blood (~1/3 of each RBC is haemoglobin and haemoglobin gives the red colour of blood).
123
How is carbon dioxide carried in the blood?
Dissolved in plasma (7%), combined with haemoglobin (23%), as bicarbonate ions (70%).
124
What is the function of platelets in the blood?
Small cell fragments that assist with blood clotting and sealing holes in blood vessels.
125
What is the function of white blood cells in the blood?
WBC or leukocytes (e.g. neutrophils and lymphocytes) are involved in immunity and inflammation and they act to protect the body from invading pathogens.
126
Can you see any veins on your hands or feet?
Yes, you should be able to see an abundance of them. Many veins are superficial.
127
128
There is a valve between the right atrium and the right ventricle. Name this valve.
Right atrioventricular valve or tricuspid valve.
129
Observe the strong fibrous cords that attach to the flaps of the valve. What are these called?
Chordae tendineae
130
Have a look at the ends of the chordae tendineae and you will see they are attached to muscles that project from the ventricular walls. Name these muscles. What is their function?
Papillary muscles:
Their function is to contract which pulls on the chordae tendineae and this prevents the valves from opening into the atria + prevents blood flowing back into the atria
131
The interior lining of the right ventricle contains visible ridges produced by muscle within the wall of the heart. What are these ridges called and what is their role?
Trabeculae carneae which act to increase turbulence and improve blood flow
132
Which valve spans the base of the pulmonary trunk (i.e. is between the right ventricle and pulmonary trunk?
Pulmonary semilunar valve
133
What organ is the blood in the pulmonary veins returning from?
Lungs
134
Locate the two orifices (holes) in the left ventricle, the left atrioventricular orifice and the aortic orifice. Find the valves spanning these two orifices and name them.
Bicuspid or left atrioventricular valve, and aortic semilunar valve
135
Describe which parts of the body the systemic and pulmonary circulation deliver blood to. Which side of the heart delivers blood to each circulation?
Systemic - supplies oxygen and nutrients to, and removes wastes and carbon dioxide from, tissues of the body. Blood flows from the left ventricle to all the tissues in the body, and back to the right atrium.
Pulmonary - picks up oxygen and gets rid of carbon dioxide in the lungs. After leaving the lungs, blood, which is now high in oxygen, flows from the lungs back to the left atrium.
136
What are the names given to the most superior part of the heart and the most inferior part?
Superior- base
Inferior - apex
137
Note how the majority of the heart is located towards the left-hand side of the midline. As a result of this, which of the two lungs is larger?
Right lung is larger than the left lung.
138
At its widest point, the heart should normally be no greater than half the width of the chest. What is this measurement called? It is normally measured on a chest radiograph to help diagnose cardiac abnormalities.
Cardiothoracic ratio.
139
Name the two major arteries that leave the heart and the chamber they exit from.
Pulmonary trunk – right ventricle
Aorta – left ventricle
140
What are the names of the major veins entering the heart and which chambers they entering?
Superior and inferior vena cavae into the right atrium; pulmonary veins into the left atrium.
141
Arteries deliver deoxygenated blood back to the right atrium. TRUE OR FALSE
FALSE
Veins do to including superior and inferior venae cavae
142
The pressure exerted on the walls of systemic arteries is much greater than the pressure in a systemic vein. TRUE OR FALSE
TRUE
Arteries are under much higher pressure. Veins are low pressure capacitance vessels
143
The walls of the heart contain a lot of muscle. TRUE OR FALSE
TRUE
Thick myocardium
144
Stroke volume is the amount of blood pumped from the atria to the ventricles. TRUE OR FALSE
FALSE
SV is the amount of blood pumped out of the ventricles when they contract
145
Cardiac output equals heart rate minus the stroke volume. TRUE OR FALSE
FALSE
CO = HR x SV
146
At tissue capillaries, oxygen moves out of the capillaries and into cells and carbon dioxide moves out of the cells and into capillaries. TRUE OR FALSE
TRUE
Oxygen and carbon dioxide move down their concentration gradient
147
The pulmonary trunk divides into the left and right pulmonary veins. TRUE OR FALSE
FALSE
The pulmonary trunk divides into left and right pulmonary arteries
148
The serous membrane, like the lungs, has a parietal and visceral layer, one of which directly covers the heart. Which one covers the heart?
Visceral
149
What structure does the fibrous pericardium attach to inferiorly?
Diaphragm
150
What is the opposite of crenation? I.e. when blood cells swells and eventually burst
Hemolysis
151
