Compendium 4-6 Flashcards
Why does the subject continue to breathe heavily after they have stopped exercising?
Depending on how hard the subject worked they may continue breathing heavily for a few minutes due to the oxygen debt incurred.
After exercise has stopped, extra oxygen is required to metabolize lactic acid (produced by anaerobic respiration) and replenish ATP, phosphocreatine (transfers phosphate to ADP to form ATP) and glycogen.
What is the tidal volume of breathing?
Estimated volume of air inspired or expired with each breath
What is a minute ventilation?
Total amount of air moved into and out of the respiratory system each minute
Why do you think there is a change in respiratory rate and/or depth of breathing when you exercise?
When you begin exercising your muscles are working a lot harder than they were at rest and therefore require more energy and oxygen, and need to have more waste products removed.
Increasing the respiratory rate and depth of breathing increases the amount of air inspired; which increases the amount of oxygen available and carbon dioxide that is excreted.
What are the 3 measurements obtained on vitalograph?
A. Forced Vital Capacity (FVC)
B. Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 second (FEV1sec)
C. Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 second expressed as a percentage of forced vital capacity e.g. FEV1 % = (FEV1sec / FVC) x 100
What is a nomogram?
A chart that predicts lung capacity and FEV1% based on age, sex and height
What are some examples of restrictive lung disease?
Pulmonary fibrosis, obesity, scoliosis
What are some examples of obstructive lung disease?
asthma emphysema, bronchitis
The lateral walls of the nasal cavity contain bony ridges with small passageways between these ridges. These ridges and passageways are named ‘conchae’ (concha is singular) and ‘meatus’, respectively.
What are the roles of the conchae and meatus?
To increase the surface area of the nasal cavity, create more turbulent airflow and increases the likelihood that air will come into contact with the mucous membrane (lining) of the nasal cavity.
Air becomes warmer and more humid as it passes through the nose. This is important because warm, humid air increases the efficiency of gas exchange in the lungs. How does the nasal cavity warm and humidify the air?
As air passes over the mucous membrane lining the nasal cavity, the mucous produced increases the moisture of air.
The air is warmed to body temperature by the many capillaries close to the surface in the nose, which carry warm blood (this is why your nose bleeds easily).
How many cartilages does larynx consists of? How are they connected to each other?
9, connected by muscles and ligaments
How many of the cartilages of the larynx are paired and how many are singular?
6 paired and 3 singles.
Fill in the blank.
Are the left and right lungs of equal size? What structure/s impact on the size of the lungs?
No, lungs are not the same size. The heart located to the left side of the thoracic cavity decreases the size of the left lung relative to the right. However, the right lung can appear shorter (superiorly to inferiorly) due to the presence of the liver (right lobe).
Identify the organs of the abdomen that are in contact with the diaphragm. Do these organs impact on the lungs?
The liver and stomach are in contact with the diaphragm. The liver pushes the right lung superiorly.
What is the role of cartilage in the bronchial tree?
Maintain a patent airway (i.e. keep the airway open)
What is found directly behind the trachea?
Oesophagus
Cartilage rings in the trachea are incomplete posteriorly. What completes the ring?
A muscle (the exact name not necessary, but it is the trachealis muscle)
N.B. Having a muscle at the back of the trachea (rather than cartilage rings) means that food can move down the oesophagus more easily.
The trachea bifurcates into the right and left primary bronchi. What is the area where it bifurcates called?
Carina
Examine the angles at which the primary bronchi leave the trachea. Are they symmetrical?
No, the right is more vertical than the left. This explains why foreign objects lodge more in the right bronchi than the left (i.e. easy pathway from trachea to right bronchi).
The region where the bronchi, nerves, blood vessels and lymphatics enter or exit the lungs is called the _______
Hilum.
Fill in the blank
The epithelium changes from being _____________________, a common respiratory epithelium, early in the tracheobronchial tree to simple squamous in the alveoli for rapid diffusion of gases.
Pseudostratified ciliated epithelium
What are the 2 functions of pleural fluid?
1) Acts as a lubricant, allowing the parietal and visceral pleura to slide past each other as the lungs and thoracic wall move during ventilation
2) Helps hold the parietal and visceral pleura together; which means the lungs are adhered to the thoracic wall. This means when the chest expands (e.g. when we breathe in) the lungs are pulled out and expand as well. (like two panes of glass with water between them, it’s hard to pull them apart)
What happens to the lung when you introduce air into the pleural cavity?
The lung collapses because the increased pressure of the air in the pleural space pushes against the lung tissue. This is called a pneumothorax.
What do you think red “lines” inside the alveoli represent?
Pulmonary capillaries
What is the benefit of having a simple squamous epithelium lining the alveoli and blood capillaries in the lung?
The respiratory membrane is very thin and allows very rapid diffusion of carbon dioxide and oxygen.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide move by ___________ diffusion
Passive
The nose traps dust and bacteria, so that the air that enters the lungs is clean. What features of the nose contribute to this?
The hairs at the entrance to the nasal cavity (external nares) start the filtering process for large particles. Mucous in the nasal cavity also traps unwanted particles, and cilia lining the nasal cavity sweep the mucous (with its trapped particles) back towards the pharynx to be swallowed. This prevents dust and other particles from entering the respiratory system.
How does smoking affect the processes of nose trapping dust and bacteria?
Smoking can change the lining of the respiratory tract and decrease the action of cilia. This means more particulate matter and bacteria can move deeper in to the respiratory tract.
The pharyngotympanic (Eustachian) tube opens into the nasopharynx. Into which other space does it open and what is the purpose of the Eustachian tube? (Hint: think of how your ears “pop” in an aeroplane?)
The Eustachian tube is normally closed, but it can open to let a small amount of air through to equalize pressure between the middle ear and the atmosphere (prevents damage to ear)
Describe the position of the lungs relative to the (1) liver, (2) sternum and (3) ribs using correct anatomical terminology.
The lungs are superior to the liver; Lungs are deep/posterior to the sternum; Lungs are deep to the ribs
What benefits are there of having the lungs encased in the ribcage?
Ribcage protects the lungs (vital organ).
Muscles of rib cage also assist in breathing in/out.
In order how air travel during inhalation: Secondary bronchi, terminal bronchioles, trachea, primary bronchi, respiratory bronchioles alveoli, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles
Trachea, primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles, alveoli.
Label the image with Secondary bronchus, trachea, primary bronchus, tertiary bronchus, bronchioles
What are the alternative names of the primary, secondary, and tertiary bronchi?
Primary - main bronchus;
Secondary - lobar bronchus;
Tertiary - segmental.
Why are bronchi given then alternative names? What is the relevance of these alternative names?
Each lung can be sub-divided into lobes and the lobes can be further sub-divided into segments. Each left and right main bronchi supplies air to each left and right lung, respectively; the lobar bronchi supply air to the lobes of the lungs; the segmental bronchi supply air to the segments of the lungs.
How would you distinguish anatomically between the respiratory and terminal bronchioles? What is the anatomical difference between the two?
The respiratory bronchioles have alveoli attached to them whereas the terminal bronchioles do not.
Some parts of the respiratory system are termed conductive and others are respiratory. What do they mean?
Conductive passages conduct air into the lungs but don’t participate in gas exchange.
Respiratory areas are involved in the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
What parts of of the respiratory system are termed conductive?
Trachea,
Bronchi (1°, 2°, 3°)
Bronchioles
Terminal bronchioles
What parts of of the respiratory system are termed respiratory?
Respiratory bronchioles
Alveoli
An__________ solution is one that has the same total concentration of solutes (osmolarity) as intracellular fluid (fluid inside a cell). This is approximately ___ milli-Osmols per litre (___ mOsmol/L)
Isotonic, 290
A ___________ solution has less solutes and more water molecules (is more dilute) compared to the inside of the cell.
hypotonic
___________ solution has more solutes and less water molecules (is more concentrated) compared to intracellular fluid.
Hypertonic
What substances need to move into and out of a typical cell?
Ions, water, proteins, nutrients, waste products, macromolecules, gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, cholesterol
Describe the arrangement of the phospholipid molecules?
The phospholipid molecules are arranged in a double layer with their polar heads (hydrophilic) facing the intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid, and their non-polar fatty acid tails (hydrophobic) facing the interior of the membrane
What are the roles of proteins in the cell membrane?
The membrane proteins help the cell to “communicate” with its environment. Some of these proteins are enzymes, or ion channels allowing certain ions to move through the cell membrane, or carrier molecules necessary for the transport of molecules across the cell membrane and or essential for cell-to-cell recognition.
What does the ‘fluid mosaic model’ of cell membranes mean?
This term refers to the theory that the cell membrane is not a rigid structure but is fluid (constantly moving) in nature and can change its shape and, to some extent, its composition over time.
For instance, the nature of the phospholipid molecules are influenced by diet and membrane proteins come and go depending on the metabolic state of the cell
The cell membrane can be described as the ‘gate keeper of the cell’. What does this mean?
The cell membrane is a highly selective membrane.
It controls what can pass across in, either into or out of the cell.
The cell membrane determines what substances pass, in what amounts and at what time
Molecules such as oxygen and carbon dioxide move across the cell membrane by diffusion. Define diffusion?
This is when solute molecules move passively from one region to another down their concentration gradient i.e. there is net movement of molecules from a region of high solute concentration to a region of low solute concentration
What is meant by facilitated diffusion? Is it an active process or passive process?
Facilitated diffusion is a passive process and does not use cellular energy.
Facilitated diffusion is where a molecule is “helped” or “facilitated” to cross the cell membrane by use of a carrier/channel protein. The movement is always down the concentration gradient, like simple diffusion. This process is necessary because the molecules are either too big or too polar to cross the lipid bilayer of the membrane independently.
Give an example of a substance that crosses the membrane via facilitated diffusion with the help of a carrier protein.
Glucose
What is the name for the process by which water crosses the cell membrane? What are names of the channels used by water to cross the cell membrane?
Process = osmosis; Channels = aquaporins
When is the process of active transport required? Does it use cellular energy?
This is required when a solute moves “up” its concentration gradient (from low solute concentration to high solute concentration).
It requires a carrier and requires energy, ATP, to drive the process
Give an example of two substances that are moved across the membrane in active transportation. For each substance describe the concentration on either side of the membrane, and which direction the active transport would move them.
The Na+/K+ pump in the cell membrane is an example here where Na+ is constantly pumped out of cells and K+ pumped into cells. Both ions are moved against their concentration gradients.
Na+ concn ~140 mmol/L in extracellular fluid & 10 mmol/L in intracellular fluid
K+ concn ~150 mmol/L in intracellular fluid & 4 mmol/L in extracellular fluid
Cellular Respiration involves breaking down the _______ molecule into ___________and ____________ to produce energy the cell.
What is this energy used for?
Glucose, carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O).
Energy for powering cellular processes like protein synthesis and transport.
What is the equation of cellular respiration to produce energy?
C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + 36-38 ATP
What are the 3 stages of cellular respiration?
- Glycolysis
- Citric acid cycle
- Oxidative phosphorylation
Fill in the blank with 32-34 x ATP, 2 x ATP, 2 x Pyruvic acid, 6 x NADH, Glucose, H20.
- Glucose
- 2 x ATP
- 2 x Pyruvic acid
- 2 x ATP
- 6 x NADH
- H2O
- 32-34 ATP
What’s a sphygmomanometer?
What are these pulse points called? (the ones pointed)
