Compendium 1-3 Flashcards
1
Q
What factors do you think all living organisms have in common?
A
- Organisation
- Metabolism
- Responsiveness
- Growth
- Development (differentiation and morphogenesis)
- Reproduction
2
Q
List the six levels of organisation of living organism and give two examples of each.
A
- Chemical: DNA, RNA, protein, hormone, lipid
- Cell: Smooth muscle cell, red blood cell, neuron
- Tissue: Nervous, connective, muscle, epithelial tissue
- Organ: Lung, stomach, brain, heart
- Organ system: Respiratory system, renal system, cardiovascular
- Organism: Human, elephant, ladybug
3
Q
What do you think is meant by minor disturbances of homeostasis? Include examples in your answer.
A
Easy to recover from. E.g. if your body temperature goes down, you will shiver to generate body heat which then brings your temperature back up. If your body temperature goes up, you then sweat to bring it back down.
4
Q
What do you think is meant by major disturbances of homeostasis? Include examples in your answer.
A
May never completely recover or return to normal. Requires assistance or medical intervention. e.g. third degree burns, stroke, severe brain injury, presence of a foreign body in the respiratory or digestive system, cancer.
5
Q
The right kidney is
________ and ______ (position)
to the liver.
A
inferior, posterior
6
Q
List the 3 main cavities of the trunk.
A
Thoracic cavity,
Abdominal cavity,
Pelvic cavity.
7
Q
What structure (muscle) separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity?
A
Diaphragm
8
Q
The left and right sides of the thoracic cavity are separated by an area in the middle – what is this area called?
A
Mediastinum
9
Q
What does the mediastinum contain?
A
The heart, thymus, oesophagus and trachea, blood vessels & nerves
10
Q
The abdominal cavity and the pelvic cavity are not physically separated and are often referred to as the abdominopelvic cavity. What structures enclose each cavity and what organs are found in each?
A
Abdominal cavity – enclosed anteriorly by the abdominal muscles, contains the stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, spleen and kidneys.
Pelvic cavity – enclosed by the pelvic bones, contains the urinary bladder, parts of the large intestine and the internal reproductive organs.
11
Q
In which quadrant does the appendix lie?
A
Right lower quadrant
12
Q
In which quadrant is the spleen located?
A
Left upper quadrant
13
Q
In which quadrant(s) is the urinary bladder located?
A
Left and right lower quadrants
14
Q
In which region(s) is the liver?
A
Right hypochondriac and epigastric
15
Q
In which region(s) is the urinary bladder?
A
Hypogastric region
16
Q
Which organ(s) (appendix, stomach, liver or large intestine) is/are in the left iliac region?
A
Large intestine
17
Q
Can you think of any conditions in which various organs may move to a different location within the abdominopelvic cavity?
A
Pregnancy, central abdominal obesity, abdominal tumour growth.
18
Q
A person is stabbed with a knife in the epigastric region – which organs may be damaged?
A
Liver, stomach, pancreas, major blood vessels.
19
Q
Describe frontal or coronal plane.
A
A vertical plane that separates the body into anterior and posterior portions.
20
Q
Describe horizontal or transverse plane.
A
A horizontal (transverse) plane that separates the body into superior and inferior portions. A horizontal (transverse) plane runs parallel to the ground.
21
Q
Describe sagittal plane (including mid-sagittal).
A
A vertical plane that separates the body into left and right segments. A mid-sagittal plane will divide the body into two equal segments (e.g. through the nose). A parasagittal plane will divide the body into unequal segments (e.g. through a shoulder).
22
Q
What standard plane(s) pass through the brain and nasal septum?
A
Mid-sagittal, horizontal and/or frontal planes
23
Q
What standard plane(s) pass through both eyes?
A
Horizontal and frontal planes
24
Q
What standard plane(s) pass through the heart and the liver?
A
Frontal and sagittal
25
What standard plane(s) pass through the knee and hip joints?
Para-sagittal (one leg only) and frontal planes
26
What standard plane(s) pass through both knees?
Horizontal and frontal
27
What standard plane(s) pass through the brain and right shoulder?
Frontal only
28
What standard plane(s) pass through the sternum and spinal cord?
Horizontal and mid-sagittal
29
Label the organs and serous membranes on the diagram.
1. Visceral pericardium
2. Pericardial cavity (containing fluid)
3. Parietal pericardium
4. Heart
5. Diaphragm
30
Label the organs and serous membranes on the diagram.
6. Visceral pleura
7. Pleural cavity
8. Parietal pleura
9. Lung
31
What is a cell?
A cell is the basic structural and functional unit in living organisms.
32
What is a tissue?
A tissue is a group of similar cells and the extracellular materials surrounding them. There are four primary tissue types found in the human body. Organs are made up of the four primary tissues.
33
Name the 4 primary tissue types found in the human body.
1. Epithelial
2. Muscle
3. Nervous
4. Connective
34
Give a brief description of epithelial cells.
Epithelial tissue
- contains lots of cells with very little extracellular matrix.
- has a free surface (top) and a basal surface which sits on a basement membrane.
- avascular (does not contain blood vessels).
- found lining the entire body (e.g. skin), lining tubes (e.g. trachea, oesophagus, uterine tubes, small intestine, blood vessels) or hollow organs within the body (e.g. bladder).
35
What is histology the study of?
Histology is the microscopic study of tissues with the aim of understanding their structure and function. It involves using a microscope as a basic tool (e.g. light microscope).
Tissue samples are ‘fixed’ usually using paraformaldehyde and embedded in paraffin wax, sections are cut on a microtome, placed on a glass, stained and then examined under a microscope.
36
What does haematoxylin and eosin (H&E) stain?
Haematoxylin and eosin is a very commonly used histology stain. Haematoxylin stains the cell nucleus (DNA) dark purple and eosin stains cytoplasmic cell components pink.
37
Approximately ?/3 of body fluid is intracellular and ?/3 is extracellular.
2, 1
38
Extracellular fluid is further divided into what two types?
Intravascular and intercellular/interstitial
39
Approx ___% of extracellular fluid is intercellular, and ____% is intravascular fluid.
80, 20
40
What is the extracellular environment of blood cells?
Cells suspended in a fluid environment.
41
What is the extracellular environment of cells lining your mouth?
Cells are in a moist environment that might contain food and saliva
42
Draw the following organelles inside your cell:
nucleus, nucleolus, lysosome, ribosome, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, centrosome and rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum
43
What is this cell organelle and what does it do?
Nucleus: The control centre of the cell. Contains genetic material – DNA and chromatin – which encodes for proteins.
44
What is this cell structure (magenta ball in the middle) and what does it do?
Nucleolus: Produces ribosomes.
45
What is this cell organelle and what does it do?
Mitochondria: "energy powerhouse" of the cell, ATP production
46
What is this cell organelle and what does it do?
Ribosome: site for protein synthesis
47
What is this cell organelle and what does it do?
Lysosome: Contain digestive enzymes that break down unwanted/old cell organelles. Removal of intracellular wastes - nucleic acids, lipids, proteins.
48
What is this cell organelle and what does it do?
Rough endoplasmic reticulum: Site of protein synthesis and modification via ribosomes.
49
What is this cell organelle and what does it do?
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum: Site of steroid, carbohydrate and lipid synthesis. Detoxification of harmful substances (e.g. drugs).
50
What is this cell organelle and what does it do?
Centrosome: Contains two centrioles which are involved in the growth of the mitotic spindle during cell division (mitosis + meiosis).
51
What is this cell organelle and what does it do?
Golgi apparatus: Modifies, packages and distributes proteins and lipids for secretion out of cell or for use within the cell.
52
What is this cell structure and what does it do?
Cell membrane. Encloses and supports cellular contents; controls what goes into the cell and what comes out; has a role in cell-to-cell communication.
53
What types of cells would have large numbers of mitochondria and why?
Kidney, liver and muscle cells because these cells have higher energy requirements and use energy at a higher rate.
54
Name two types of cells that are multi-nucleated i.e. have more than one nuclei per cell? Why would cells be multi-nucleated?
Skeletal muscle cells and osteoclasts (cells which break down bone). These cells require more regulation e.g. muscle cells require the constant synthesis of enzymes and proteins for their function.
55
What types of cells would have a large amount of smooth endoplasmic reticulum and why?
Liver cells because they detoxify harmful substances. Cells of the ovaries and testes because they produce the lipid-containing hormones estrogen and testosterone.
Adrenal glands in producing cortisol.
56
What type of cell might be expected to contain a well-developed and extensive Golgi apparatus? Name two examples.
Secretory cells in general e.g. goblet cells (mucus), pancreatic beta cells (insulin) or acinar cells (enzymes), stomach chief cells (digestive enzymes) and plasma cells (antibodies).
57
What in the cell that consists of structural protein filaments that give shape to a cell, provide strength, stabilise the position of organelles and assist in cell movement.
Cytoskeleton
58
What in the cell that is the intracellular fluid, containing a mixture of water, salts, dissolved ions and organic molecules.
Cytosol
59
What in the cell components outside the nucleus but inside the plasma membrane. All the intracellular fluid plus all the organelles, except the nucleus.
Cytoplasm
60
What are the 3 types of muscle tissue?
There are three kinds of muscle tissue – skeletal, cardiac and smooth.
**Skeletal muscles** contract to move the body, **cardiac muscles** contracts to pump blood around the body, **smooth muscles** contract to decrease the size of organs such as the bladder during urination.
61
Describe a connective tissue.
Very diverse in structure and function. Few cells and an abundance of extracellular material. Tendons and ligaments connect tissue together. Bone and cartilage support the body. Connective tissue capsule cover and protect organs (e.g. liver and kidneys).
62
Describe a nervous tissue.
This is specialised for information processing and conduction of signals quickly throughout the body. Consists of neurons and supporting neuroglial cells.
63
Describe an epithelial tissue
Covers and protects surfaces, both inside and outside of the body. Comprised mostly of cells, sits on a basement membrane, nonvascular.
E.g. epidermis of the skin, linings of the digestive and respiratory tract, linings of blood vessels.
64
Fill in the blank, what are the two types of connective tissue?
Specialised, proper
65
Fill in the blanks.
TOP: bone, cartilage, blood
BOTTOM: Dense, loose
66
Fill in the blanks.
From top to bottom: adipose, irregular, regular
67
What is this primary tissue?
Nervous tissue.
68
What is this primary tissue?
Connective tissue
69
What is this primary tissue?
Muscle tissue
70
This image is taken from the central nervous system. What are the large cells in this image?
Neurons (in cross section). The smaller more abundant cells are supporting neuroglial cells.
71
What do the letters E and C indicate?
E - elastin, C - collagen, two types of connective tissue fibres.
72
This is a muscle tissue, but which specific kind of tissue is this?
Skeletal muscle – you can tell by the regular linear arrangement of the muscle cells with peripheral nuclei.
73
What are the characteristics of epithelial tissue?
* There are lots of cells with **very little extracellular matrix** between cells.
* Has a **free surface** (top) and a **basal surface** (bottom) which **sits on a basement membrane** and often **sits on top of connective tissue.**
* Is **avascular** (does not contain blood vessels) therefore nutrients (e.g. oxygen) must diffuse through the basement membrane from capillaries in the underlying connective tissue.
* Is found **lining the entire body** (e.g. skin), lining tubes (e.g. trachea, oesophagus, uterine tubes, and small intestine and blood vessels) or hollow organs within the body (e.g. bladder).
74
What is the function of the basement membrane that lies directly under the epithelial cell layer?
The basement membrane is a support base/anchoring layer for epithelial cells, and also forms part of the epithelial barrier.
75
What are the 3 different types of cell layers?
1. Simple
2. Stratified
3. Pseudostratified
76
What is the name of the cell layer type that looks like there is more than one layer of cells when in reality it is one layer, and the base of all cells sit on the basement membrane.
Pseudostratified
77
What are the 4 types of cell shapes?
1.Squamous
2. Cuboidal
3. Columnar
4. Transitional
78
What is the cell shape called when the cell is tall, and usually have ovoid nuclei towards their bases.
Columnar
79
What is the cell shape called when it can change from taller cell (columnar) to a flatter (cuboidal to squamous) shape?
Transitional
80
Where are transitional cell shapes found in our body?
Bladder and ureters only.
81
This is a histological image of thyroid.
What is the epithelium type, how many cell layers are there?
And why is it shaped this way for thyroid?
Simple cuboidal, 1 cell layer, for secretion and absorption
82
Where does single cell layer simple cuboidal epithelium found in our body?
Glands, ducts, part of
nephron, terminal bronchioles
83
This is a histological image of trachea.
What is the epithelium type, how many cell layers are there?
Pseudostratified
ciliated columnar, 1 cell layer.
84
Where can you find Pseudostratified
ciliated columnar epithelium in our body?
Nasal cavity, nasal sinuses, bronchi, trachea.
85
This is a histological image of a large intestine.
What is the epithelium type, how many cell layers are there?
Why is it structured this way?
Simple columnar, 1 cell layer, for protection, secretion, absorption
86
This is a histological image of the skin.
What is the epithelium type, how many cell layers are there?
Where else can you find this type of epithelium?
Keratinised
stratified
squamous, many layers. It only happens at the skin.
87
This is a histological image of a capillary.
What is the epithelium type, how many cell layers are there?
Where else can you find this type of epithelium?
Simple squamous, 1 cell layer, can be found at Alveoli, blood vessels, thin part of loop of Henle, inner lining of heart and body cavities.
88
This is a histological image of a bladder.
What is the epithelium type, how many cell layers are there?
Where else can you find this type of epithelium?
And why is it structured this way?
Transitional, many cell layers.
Can be found at ureter and renal pelvis.
It permits expansion and recoils when relaxed.
89
This is a histological image of an oesophagus.
What is the epithelium type, how many cell layers are there?
Where else can you find this type of epithelium?
And why is it structured this way?
Non-keratinised stratified squamous. Many cell layers.
Also found at oral cavity lining, pharynx, vagina, rectum, anus.
It is structured for physical protection against abrasion, pathogens and
chemical attack in a moist environment.
90
What is the function of cilia? Where in the body are they found?
Cilia beat in an organised motion and move material across cell surface. This is important in areas such as the trachea where they whip up mucous with trapped particles to prevent them entering lower respiratory system.
91
Name the six classes of nutrients.
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, water, vitamins and minerals.
92
Give an example of a monosaccharide, a disaccharide and a polysaccharide.
Monosaccharide – glucose, fructose, galactose
Disaccharide – sucrose (table sugar), lactose (e.g. in milk), maltose
Polysaccharide – starch, cellulose
93
A triglyceride is the most common type of lipid molecule (fat). What makes up a triglyceride?
Glycerol and 3 fatty acids
94
What is the difference between a saturated and un-saturated fat?
A saturated fat has hydrogen molecules attached to nearly every carbon molecule, whereas an un-saturated fat does not. Unsaturated fats are considered healthier.
95
What is a polypeptide?
A chain of amino acids linked together
96
Name one disorder caused by a vitamin deficiency of Vit D, Vit C, Vit B1(thiamine).
Vitamin D – rickets; Vitamin C – scurvy; Vitamin B1 (thiamine) – beriberi
97
What is an enzyme? Give an example of an enzyme produced by the pancreas.
A protein that increases the rate of a reaction but is not permanently changed by the reaction e.g. pancreatic amylase, lipase, trypsin.
98
Name the three accessory organs of the digestive system.
Liver, gallbladder, pancreas
99
What is the function of mouth in the digestive system?
Chew food and turn into bolus (mechanical digestion) Salivary amylase (some chemical digestion)
100
What is the function of oesophagus in the digestive system?
Transport of bolus to stomach
101
What is the function of stomach in the digestive system?
Mechanical digestion – food churned;
Chemical digestion - protein digestion (pepsin). Fluid leaving stomach called chyme.
102
What is the function of small intestine in the digestive system?
Chemical digestion of carbs, proteins and lipids by pancreatic enzymes. Absorption of small molecules into body through wall of GI (gastrointestinal) tract.
103
What is the function of large intestine in the digestive system?
Absorption of water, vitamin B and K synthesis (bacteria)
104
What is the difference between digestion and absorption?
Digestion is breaking down large food molecules into small particles,
e.g. polysaccharides into monosaccharides
Absorption is when molecules move from the digestive tract into the body
105
Fill in the blanks
106
In general, nutritionists suggest that lipids should account for ______% of daily kilojoule intake, carbohydrates _______% and proteins ________%.
20-35, 45-65, 10-35
107
What is the function of bile in digestion?
Bile emulsifies fat - it breaks down large lipid droplets into smaller ones (emulsify), which allows enzymes to better access the lipid droplets. This promotes lipid digestion and absorption.
108
Define ingestion.
Intake of complex foods.
109
Define digestion.
Breakdown complex food into building blocks, e.g. complex carbohydrates to glucose
110
Define absorption (in the digestive system)
molecular building blocks (e.g. glucose, amino acids, fatty acids) are absorbed into the bloodstream from the gastrointestinal tract and delivered to body cells.
111
Define cellular respiration.
Cells break down molecular building blocks to release energy, which is stored as ATP
112
Why is liver important in processing nutrients that are absorbed in the blood from the small intestine
Because the blood from the small intestine passes through the liver before returning to the heart
113
What is the function of bile in digestion?
Bile emulsifies fat - it breaks down large lipid droplets into smaller ones (emulsify), which allows enzymes to better access the lipid droplets. This promotes lipid digestion and absorption.
114
Label the 4 quadrants of the abdomen.
115
Label the 9 regions of the abdomen.
116
Label which is the left and right lobes of the liver.
117
This is the posterior view of the liver, label the gallbladder, quadrate lobe, caudate lobe, right and left lobes.
118
Pancreatic juice contains digestive enzymes that contribute to the breakdown of which three macromolecules?
Carbohydrate, protein, fat
119
What is the exocrine secretion that pancreas produces?
Pancreatic juice
120
Where does the pancreatic juice produced by the pancreas go?
Delivered to the duodenum via 2 main ducts
121
What is the other substance that pancreas secrete apart from pancreatic juice? What it is for?
Bicarbonate ions, which decrease the acidity of food within the duodenum.
122
What are the 4 muscles involved in mastication?
Temporalis, masseter, lateral pterygoid and medial pterygoid.
123
What does the term mastication mean?
To chew food
124
How does mastication contribute to the process of digestion?
They begin mechanical break down by breaking food into small pieces.
This allows digestive enzymes to come into contact with a greater surface area of food particles
125
What is the role of the tongue once food has been placed in the mouth?
The tongue pushes the bolus against the hard palate, and then directs it to the pharynx and then into the oesophagus.
126
What is the thin fold of tissue that attached the tongue to the floor of the mouth?
Lingual frenulum
127
Fill in the blanks.
128
Fill in the blanks.
129
What is the role of the uvula during swallowing?
Closes off the nasopharynx during swallowing so food is directed to the oesophagus
130
How does saliva contribute to digestion?
Saliva is composed of serous (water and amylase) and mucous (thicker fluid) These fluids help lubricate the food for easier chewing and swallowing
Saliva also contains salivary amylase, an enzyme that breaks down carbohydrates (that is, chemical digestion of carbohydrates starts in the mouth).
131
The mouth is continuous with the pharynx. The pharynx is subdivided into three parts, what and where are they?
- Nasopharynx (at the back of the nose)
- Oropharynx (at the back of the mouth)
- Laryngopharynx (near larynx, the tube that carries air)
132
Where does food passes by starting from the mouth to oesophagus?
Mouth -> oropharynx -> laryngopharyx -> oesophagus
133
What is the sphincter called between oesophagus and stomach? What is the function of it?
Cardiac sphincter: stops acidic stomach contents from moving back into the oesophagus.
If they do, it's called a reflux (heart burn)
134
What role does the epiglottis play in swallowing?
The epiglottis closes off the larynx/trachea and stops food from entering the trachea and therefore the respiratory system
135
Does the oesophagus lie anterior (in front of) or posterior (behind) to the trachea?
The oesophagus is posterior to the trachea
136
What's the volume of stomach empty vs full?
50ml - 3.5-4 liters
137
Where does protein digestion starts in the digestive system?
Stomach
138
The walls of the stomach contain a large amount of muscle. Why do you think muscle is needed in this organ?
The stomach is responsible for much of the mechanical digestion of food. The muscle in the stomach wall mixes the food with gastric juice.
139
What is the role of the pyloric sphincter?
The pyloric sphincter remains partially closed, and when the stomach contracts it allows only a small amount of chyme to flow into the small intestine
Regulates movement of chyme from stomach to duodenum (small intestine)
140
Label these with Cardia, Fundus, Body, Pyloric sphincter and Pylorus
141
Describe the position of the pancreas to the gall bladder and liver.
Pancreas is inferior and posterior to the liver and gallbladder.
142
How long is a small intestine when stretched out?
6m
143
What is the part of the large intestine called where it meets the small intestine?
Caecum
144
Label this diagram with these:
caecum, appendix, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum and anal canal/anus.
145
Why do you think it may be more useful to use regions as opposed to quadrants in a clinical setting?
Describing the location of abdominal organs using regions is more precise than using quadrants, therefore more clinically useful.
146
147
How is gallstones formed?
Gallstones are insoluble deposits that inside the gallbladder due to an accumulation of bile salts
148
What do you think the effect on bile will be if it is no longer stored in the gall bladder? If someone has their gall bladder removed, should they make any changes to their diet?
Bile becomes more dilute, and can’t be released “on demand” after a fatty meal. This means thus dietary fats are not broken down as efficiently.
Therefore, someone would have to reduce the amount of fat consumed to combat the problem.
149
How long does it take liquid to exit the stomach after ingestion?
Around 1.5 – 2.5 hours
150
How long does it take for a typical meal to exit the stomach after ingestion?
From the time you start chewing a piece of food to the time it becomes chyme in the stomach, it can take up to 4 hours
151
Why do you think the small intestines need to be so long?
To make sure all the nutrients obtained from the broken down food are absorbed into the blood.
Once in the blood they go to the cells where they are used to produce energy or form structures within the cell
152
Name of the three subdivisions of the small intestine. What are their lengths?
Duodenum ~ 25 cm long (C-shaped curve)
Jejunum ~ 2.5 m long
Ileum ~ 3.5 m long; joins large intestine
153
Which subdivision of the small intestine do pancreatic enzymes and bile empty in to?
Duodenum
154
How long does it take for food to pass through the small intestines?
It takes around 3 – 5 hours for food to travel through the small intestine.
155
The wall of the small intestines contains smooth muscle. What is the role of muscle in the wall of the small intestine?
To move the food so it is in close contact with the microvilli on top of the cells so all the nutrients can be absorbed.
Smooth muscle also propels the chyme along the length of the small intestines (peristalsis) where nutrients are reabsorbed back into the body.
156
The inner lining of the small intestines has special features that increase its surface area approximately 600-fold.
Name these three features. Why do you think these features are necessary?
Circular folds, villi and microvilli increase surface area, which is important in the small intestine The greater the surface area, the greater the capacity for absorption of nutrients
This is why Crohn’s disease (case study) causes issues because the intestinal lining gets damaged and nutrients can’t be absorbed properly
157
What happens to the chyme as it passes from the ileum (last part of the small intestines) through the length of the large intestines to allow faeces to be formed?
The large intestine is the last chance for the body to reabsorb any remaining nutrients back into the blood, but these nutrients are mostly in the form of water and electrolytes (salts).
Bacteria in the large intestines also produce vitamins (B and K), and finally faeces will start to form. As more and more water is reabsorbed from the remaining chyme, the faeces becomes harder and harder and is
pushed towards the rectum where it will be expelled from the body via the anus
158
How long does it take food to pass through the large intestines?
It takes anywhere from 18 - 24 hrs for food to pass through the large intestine where water and electrolytes etc are reabsorbed into the body, and faeces are produced (eliminated) as the bi-product
159
What is peristalsis and what is its function?
Peristalsis is involuntary wave-like muscular contractions, which move food through the digestive tract. For food to move through the tract, the muscle in the tube ahead of the food has to relax and the muscle immediately behind the food contracts, so food is pushed in only one direction
160
Numerous bacteria are found within the large intestine. What is their function?
Bacteria are responsible for
- the production of vitamins B and K
- the decomposition of bilirubin (you don’t need to know this term but its formed by recycled red blood cells)
- the breakdown of amino acids
- the chemical break down of fibre to produce nutrients for their own survival and to nourish the cells lining the colon (which is why fibre in your diet is extremely important to maintain the long-term health of the colon)
161
What is the tidal volume of breathing?
Estimated volume of air inspired or expired with each breath
162
163
What is a minute ventilation?
Total amount of air moved into and out of the respiratory system each minute
164
Why do you think there is a change in respiratory rate and/or depth of breathing when you exercise?
When you begin exercising your muscles are working a lot harder than they were at rest and therefore require more energy and oxygen, and need to have more waste products removed.
Increasing the respiratory rate and depth of breathing increases the amount of air inspired; which increases the amount of oxygen available and carbon dioxide that is excreted.
165
What do you call the molecule that binds with enzymes? And when they get bound, what do you call the complex?
Substrate, enzyme-substrate complex
166
What is the difference between exocrine and endocrine glands?
Exocrine glands secrete substances into a duct, endocrine glands secrete directly into the bloodstream
167
What is a portal vein, aka hepatic portal vein?
Blood vessel that carries blood from the gastrointestinal tract, gallbladder, pancreas and spleen to the liver. This blood contains nutrients and toxins extracted from digested contents
168
Name the 3 layers of muscles of stomach that each goes different directions. Starting from the innermost.
Oblique layer, circular layer, longitudinal layer.
169
What are rugae in the stomach wall, what is the function
Folds in stomach wall that
allow stomach to stretch after
eating.
170
What is the acid called in the stomach?
Hydrochloric acid
