Cold War (1945-75) Flashcards
1
Q
3
Describe the Cold War policies of Truman-JFK
A
- Truman - containment
- Ike - roll back
- JFK - brokemanship (e.g. Berlin and Cuba)
2
Q
4 + 4
List Cold War developments during Truman’s Presidency
A
-
USSR
- Truman Doctrine
- Marshall Aid 1948
- Berlin Airlfit 1949
- Arms Race
-
Asia
- Korean War
- SCAP occupation of Japan
- China relations
- Vietnam relations
3
Q
2
How did the area of focus during the Cold War shift
A
- Europe intially main theatre of tension
- Shifted to Asia after Korean War began
4
Q
5
Describe USSR exclusion from the Manhattan Project
A
- USSR seen as temporary ally - remained repressive dictatorship and ideological opponent
- Project lasted 1942-45 with British-Candadian support
- Sudden absence of journal articles in American nuclear fission research prompted Stalin to start own atomic bomb project in February 1943
- Soviet spies (e.g. Fuchs) had infilitrated project
- At Potsdam conference, Truman informed Stalin of American ‘superweapon’ following Trinity test - yet unknown to Truman, Stalin had already known of this development
5
Q
4
Describe the Tehran Conference 1943
A
- Big Three met to discuss Operation Overload (D-Day) and post-war future of Germany and Eastern Europe
- FDR conceded USSR territorial gains in ice-free ports of China in exchange for Soviet support against Japan
- Agreed on adjustment of German-Polish border to Oder and Neisse rivers (USSR gained land from Poland, who in return gained land from Poland)
- FDR proposed to Stalin his vision of United Nations dominated by ‘Four Policemen’ of USA, USSR, Britain and China
Big Three - FDR, Stalin, Churchill
6
Q
8 - don’t need all
Describe the Yalta Conference 1945
A
- Feb 1945
- Formalised agreements at Tehran
- Agreed on German division into East and West Allied Zones
- Stalin pledged to hold free elections in all territories liberated from Nazis
- Agreed inclusion of Communists in post-war Polish national govt
- Soviets granted sphere of influence in Manchuria
- Finalised US Security Council proposals - agreement on permanent veto and expansion to incorporate France
- FDR accused of handing over Northern Asia and Eastern Europe
7
Q
2
Describe public sentiment following Yalta
A
- Extensive poll found 50% of American public felt that wartime co-op with USSR should continue
- Sentiment quickly withered following Truman inauguration
8
Q
6
Describe the Postdam Conference 1945
A
- July 1945
- Churchill replaced by Atlee; FDR replaced by Truman (more critical of Stalin)
- Further finalisation on Germany borders and demilitarisation
- USSR would recieve 1/2 of German reparations
- ‘Postdam Declaration’ to promise Japanese destruction if it did not surrender - USSR did not sign until 8 Aug, one week before surrender
- Truman notification of ‘superweapon’ marked end of wartime alliance with USSR
9
Q
3
Describe the reason why the USSR recieved half of German reparations
A
- 27m total deaths (US incurred less than 2% of such losses)
- 6m homes destroyed
- Needed greater funding to rebuild
10
Q
2
Describe Truman’s expansion of the US’ intellegience capabilities
A
- CIA established 1947
- 1950 National Security Council Report, NSC-68, committed the US to massive funding of National Security State expansion
11
Q
4
Describe the USSR forcing communism onto eastern Europe in the late 1940s
A
- Stalin started imposing communist regimes on many of the countries they had liberated from the Nazi’s:
- 1947, Romania - King was given 2 hours to introduce a pro-communist government after meeting with Soviet deputy foreign minister
- Imposition of communist satellite states in Hungary in 1947 and Czechoslovakia in 1948
- Only Greece, embroilled in civil war, did not succumb to communist forces
12
Q
3
Describe international concern about the USSR spreading communism in the late 1940s
A
- Truman increasingly concerned that Communism would spread to countries outside of soviet rule
- 1946, Churchill spoke of ‘Iron Curtain’ in speech in Fulton, Missouri
- by 1949, agreed that Cold War had developed
13
Q
3
Describe Government divisions over the post-WW2 FP
A
- Liberals like Henry Wallace (VP 1941-45) urged compromise with Stalin
- Hawkish voices like James Brynes (Sec of State 1945-47) urged unyielding voice
- Truman settled on more hawkish ‘Truman Doctrine’
14
Q
4
Describe the Truman Doctrine
A
- 1947, Truman promised US support, even if short of military action, for nations facing Communist threat
- Sought to ensure democratic political integrity in those nations
- American national security now depdended on much more than physical security of territory
- Permanently orientated American FP from isolationism to interventionism
15
Q
3
Describe the first application of the Truman Doctrine
A
- Britain announced it could no longer fund anti-Communist forces in Turkish Straits Crisis and Greek Civil War
- 1947, Congress approved Truman request for $400m of support for Greece and Turkey
- Greece and Turkey subsequently resisted Communism so doctrine deemed successful.
16
Q
5
Describe Marshall Aid 1948
A
- Offered $13bn package to help European nations recover from effects of WW2
- Conference of 22 nations set up to assess economic needs of affected countries
- USSR and satellite states did not attend
- 16 Western European nations formed European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) to spend this money
- Aid intended to stop struggling euro nations from slipping into Communism and succesfully combatted French and Italian communist movements
17
Q
3
Why was Stalin so determined to force the West out of Berlin?
A
- Brain drain of young talent
- Losing ideological battle - young opting for capitalist West Germany
- East German govt pressured Stalin to act
18
Q
5
Describe what caused the Berlin Airlift 1949
A
- By 1948, 3 Allied zones had endured strong economic recovery
- Soviet zone suffered from stagnation with communism increasingly imposed upon it
- June 1948, Western zones introduced new currency, Deutschmark - hoped to make it legal tender in Berlin
- Stalin cut all transport links and communications between Allied Zones and Berlin
- Hoped to blocade West Berlin into accepting Communist rule (made possible by lack of ratified WW2 peace treaty)
19
Q
4
Describe the Berlin Airlift 1949
A
- Britain and US organised an airlift of essential supplies to blockaded West Berlin
- By March 1949, 8k tonnes of daily supplies were being delivered
- Faced down Soviet threat to aircraft flying through controlled airspace
- May 1949, Stalin called blockade off
20
Q
2
Describe the impact of Berlin Airlift 1949
A
- Demonstrated Truman commitment to and success of ‘containment’ in Europe
- Allied Zones would merge into West Germany 2 weeks later afterwards
21
Q
5
Describe the formation of NATO
A
- Formed April 1949
- Defensive alliance, yet main purpose to limit Soviet expansion
- Defences placed under joint NATO command organisation
- Article 5 - collective defense
- with US encouragement, European economies began to consolidate into ECSC/EEC
22
Q
5
Describe American aims in Asia (1945-60)
A
- Truman Doctrine - provide financial assistance to anti-commist forces in Japan and China
- Support independent capitalist South Korea
- Support French forces in Indochina
- 1950, Dean Acheson (Sec of State) spoke of need for ‘defensive perimeter’ in Pacific to prevent advances of Communist forces
- 1954, Eisenhower warned of ‘domino theory’ - collapse of one govt to communism would precipitate collapse of neighbouring countries
23
Q
2
Describe the background of the Korean War
A
- Following WW2, Korea split along 38th parallel
- 1949, both US and USSR troops withdrew from region following Mao victory in China
24
Q
4
Describe the invasion and liberation of South Korea in 1950
A
- March 1950, North Korea invaded the South
- UN sent 15-nation strong forces to halt invasion
- The vast majority were US and under command of General MacArthur (Supreme Commander for Allied powers)
- UN forces liberated South Korea
25
Q
5
Describe the Korean War following the involvement of China
A
- UN forces invaded North following South liberation, ignoring warnings
- Truman fired MacArthur for going beyond orders
- Truman faced tremendous hostility for decision and portrayed as soft on communism
- Oct 1950, China sent in 250k troops
- Led to stalemate for 3 years
26
Q
4
Describe the hostile consequences of the Korean War 1950-53
A
- Sino-American hostility increased (second phase had essentially been Sino-American war)
- US gave increased support to Taiwan
- Sustained McCarthyism and worsened Cold War antagonism
- Later revealed that soviets secretly sent air forces to help NK
27
Q
2
Describe the non-hostile consequences of the Korean War 1950-53
A
- Demonstrated that WW3 was unwanted by 3 major powers
- Sacking of MacArthur USA planned to stick to containment not domination
28
Q
4
Describe US relations with Japan (1945-52)
A
- SCAP would occupy Japan from 1945-52 under control of MacArthur
- 1st phase - fundamental changes to Japanese society and govt
- 2nd phase - ‘reverse course’
- 3rd phase - peaceful transition
SCAP - Supreme Command of Allied Powers
29
Q
4
Describe the 1st phase of SCAP Japanese occupation 1945-47 (Political)
A
- Convening of war crime trials in Tokyo
- Japanese army dismantled
- Former army generals barred from political office
- imposed constitution of 1947 - downgraded emperor’s status to ceremonial role and transferred power to parliamentary system
30
Q
2
Describe the 1st phase of SCAP Japanese occupation 1945-47 (society/economy)
A
- SCAP enacted land reform to benefit majority tenant farmers over rich landowners who had previously advocated Japanese expansion
- worked to break up Japanese conglomerates ‘zaibatsu’ to spur free market competition
31
Q
4
Describe the 2nd phase of SCAP Japanese occupation 1947-50
A
- Economic crisis and increased fear of communism after Chinese CW conclusion forced reconsideration of occupation policies
- Initiated major tax reform
- Korean War boosted demand for military supplies for UN forces
- Japan placed in confines of US defence perimeter
32
Q
3
Describe the 3rd phase of SCAP Japanese occupation 1950-52
A
- US threats had changed so profoundly in years 1945-50 that rearmament of Japan no longer alarmed US officials
- Treaty of San Francisco 1951 ended Allied Occupation
- US would maintain bases in Okinawa and other areas in Japan
33
Q
5
Describe relations with China under Truman’s Presidency (CW)
A
- US had supported Chiang Kai-Shek and Chinese Nationalists against Mao of CCP in CW (1945-49)
- Mao a strict anti-American, anti-imperialist
- US abandoned Chiang by 1949, who fled to Taiwan
- US refused to recognise People’s Republic of China (PRC) and instead maintained diplomatic relations in Taiwan, recognising that as sole govt of China
- After CW US interest in China seemed to wane
34
Q
4
Describe relations with China under Truman’s Presidency (post-CW)
A
- 1949, imposed trade embargo
- Amid possibility of PRC invasion of Taiwan in 1950, Truman sent US 7th Fleet to protect Taiwan Straits
- USA interpreted Korean War as sign of expansionist Chinese-sponsored communism that could threaten US security by aiding global revolutions
- China saw Korean War as display of aggressive nature of USA who was likely to attack China itself
- China once again considered key sphere of influence
35
Q
5 + 2
List Cold War developments during Eisenhower’s Presidency
A
-
USSR
- Hungarian Uprising 1956
- Suez Crisis 1956
- Berlin Ultimatum 1958
- Space race
- Arms race
-
China
- China relations and Taiwan support
- SEATO 1954
36
Q
2
Desribe the Warsaw Pact
A
- Military alliance of 8 satellite states headed by USSR
- Set up 1955
37
Q
4
Describe Eisenhower’s Cold War attitude in 1952
A
- Eisenhower and John Dulles (Secretary of State) dubbed ‘Cold War Warriors’
- Won 1952 election by attacking Truman’s administration for being ‘soft on communism’
- Eisenhower and Dulles talked about ‘rolling back’ on communism (push back as opposed to mere containment) and a ‘massive retaliation’
- Planned to base US defence on nuclear weaponry
38
Q
3
Describe Khrushchev
A
- 1953, Nikita Khrushchev succeeded Stalin as leader of USSR
- Policies a mix of provocation and conciliation
- Events in Hungary confirmed Eisenhower’s suspicion of concillatiatory attempts
39
Q
3
Describe Khrushchev’s provokation policies
A
- Encouraged West Europeans to halt West German rearmament
- Expanded influence into middle East as USSR spearheaded Egyptian-Czechoslovakia arms deal in 1955
- Created Warsaw Pact in 1955
40
Q
4
Describe Khrushchev’s conciliatory policies
A
- returned naval base to Finland in 1956
- reduced Red Army to 0.5 million men
- agreed to talks on agriculture and peaceful use of atomic energy
- May 1955, signed Austrian peace treaty - 4 occupying powers retreated and it became neutral and independent state
41
Q
6
Describe the events of the Hungarian Uprising 1956
A
- 1956, Khrushchev began policy of relaxing Stalin-era controls on Eastern Europe
- Moderate Communists in Hungary, led by Imre Nagy, threatened to leave Warsaw Pact and initiate countrywide revolution
- Khruschev sent in tanks to quell rebellion
- 3k rebels killed
- Nagy removed and shor
- Replaced by Janos Kadar, a puppet leader
42
Q
5
Describe the significance of the Hungarian Uprising
A
- US did not intervene in spite of rebel demands
- A more moderate govt could have better contained Communist threat
- Limit to Eisenhower’s roll back agenda
- Risks of intervention too high (direct war with Soviets)
- USA preoccupied with Suez which occurred concurrently
43
Q
2
Describe how Eisenhower responded to the Suez Crisis
A
- Imposed financial sanctions on Britain and France to trigger run on currencies and force military withdrawal
- Eisenhower keen to appease Arab nations whose oil and friendship essential elements to containing a Communist bloc expanding its influence over the region
44
Q
4
Describe the consequences of the Suez Crisis
A
- Eisenhower Doctrine - extension of containment to middle east
- illustrated Anglo-French dependence on America - America only Western superpower (unlike Sino-Soviet double alliance)
- Egypt and Syria increasingly turned to Soviet military backing
45
Q
2
List examples of the Eisenhower Doctrine
A
- Jan 1957, Eisenhower asked Congress for military and economic aid for any Middle Eastern nation threatened by aggression or subversion
- USA would send support and armaments in subsequent years to Lebanon, Turkey, Iraq and Saudi Arabia
46
Q
4
Describe the cause of the Berlin Ultimatum 1958
A
- revealed that France/Britain/USA used West Berlin for espionage and sabotage
- Soviets reacted strongly to nuclear warheads situated in West Germany
- West refused to recognise legitimacy of East German state
- Nov 1958, Khrushchev issued ultimatum for West to withdraw from Berlin or would block access routes to West Berlin
47
Q
4
Describe how Eisenhower reacted to the Berlin Ultimatum 1958
A
- Mobilised NATO support
- Khrushchev repeatedly extended deadline
- Backed down in March 1959
- Khrushchev state visit in 1959 and Paris Summit in 1960 organised to reach agreement on Berlin
48
Q
3
Why did visits/summits to reach a Berlin agreement between Khrushchev and Eisenhower fail?
A
- No progress made during Khrushchev state visit despite relaxed atmosphere
- May 1960, U2 American spy plane shot down in USSR airspace and pilot Gary Powers captured
- Khruschev exited the Paris Summit after Eisenhower’s refusal to apologise
49
Q
3
Describe why relations with China continued to deteroriate under Eisenhower
A
- Eisenhower administration convinced China was Moscow puppet state
- Dulles insisted Chinese Communism was more of a threat than Soviet Communism
- Major Chinese minorities in most politically-unstable Asian countries - growing cultural influence
50
Q
3
Describe Eisenhower’s action towards China
A
- Maintained trade embargo on China from 1949-72
- Communist PRC barred from UN until 1971
- Taiwan military support
51
Q
4
Describe Taiwanese military support under Eisenhower
A
- USA established miltary bases in Taiwan
- Sino-American Mutual Defence Treaty of 1954
- Shelling of Quemoy and Matsu in 1955 - Mao backed down after Eisenhower’s nuclear threat
- Repeat crisis in 1958 saw Eisenhower order the involvement of US Navy 7th Fleet to protect Taiwanese supply lines
52
Q
4
Describe SEATO
A
- formed 1954
- consisted of US, France, GB, NZ, Australia, Philippines, Thailand, Pakistan
- lack of SE nations opened up accusations of imperialistic capitalism
- demonstrated that US officials believed SE Asia to be crucial frontier against communist expansion
53
Q
3
What happened to the CIA during Eisenhower’s presidency?
A
- Expanded
- Authorised controversial actions like bribes, subversion and even assassination attempts
- Maintained plausible deniability by concealing evidence of US involvement
54
Q
5
Describe aspects of the arms race (1945-60)
A
- Space race
- Nuclear weapons race
- ICBMs (including submarine developments)
- Navy
- Military spending
55
Q
4
Describe the Space Race under Eisenhower
A
- Soviet Space Agency began operations from 1955
- 1957, Sputnik 1 (Soviet) first artificial satellite successfully placed into orbit - USA behind Soviets in space race
- Eisenhower established NASA in 1958
- Satellite-launching technology essential for more advanced spying capabilities
56
Q
4
Describe the nuclear weapons race (1945-60)
A
- US nuclear monopoly ended by first Soviet detonation in 1949
- Truman promised to develop hydrogen bomb 1000x more potent than atomic bomb
- 1954, tested at Bikini Atoll, Marshall Islands under Eisenhower after forced relocation of inhabitants
- 1955, Soviets exploded their first hydorgen bomb at Semipalatinsk test site
57
Q
3
Describe ICBM developments (1945-60)
ICBM (intercontinental ballistic missiles) - ballistic missile with range greater than 5500 km
A
- Largely used for nuclear weapons delivery
- First operational ICBM developed by USSR - humiliated America
- First American ICBM tested in 1957 just weeks after
58
Q
2
Describe submarine developments (1945-60)
A
- 1954, US’s first nuclear-propelled submarine operational
- 1960, US tested a missile fired from submerged submarine that could reach any target on globe
59
Q
2
Describe US naval expansion (1945-60)
A
- American shipforce flatlined in nominal expansion
- Yet soviet navy far behind American navy
60
Q
4
Describe the growth of the military-industrial complex (1945-60)
A
- An inevitable result of the nuclear arms race
- Defence spending at $40-50bn a year in 1950s
- 90% US foreign aid went to military spending (armaments and weapons R&D) on allies
- Growth of computer technology (first IBM computer introduced in 1953) saw defence industry become centre of rapidly-advancing technology sector
61
Q
4
Describe the location of military contracts (1945-60)
A
- Desolate Southern desert areas in Arizona and New Mexico became centres of new testing complexes
- Arguably smoothed out economic inequalities in USA
- California particularly benefitted
- Locations reflected whether Senators sat on relevant committees to win such contracts
62
Q
2 + 1
List Cold War developments during JFK’s presidency
A
-
USSR
- Berlin Wall Crisis 1961
- Cuban Missile Crisis 1962
-
China
- early Vietnam support
63
Q
3
Describe the construction of the Berlin Wall
A
- June 1961, JFK met Khrushchev at Vienna Summit
- Khrushchev issued ultimatum to exit Berlin by Dec 1961 or he would transfer Berlin access routes to East Germany
- August 1961, Khrushchev ordered East Germany to construct wall
64
Q
2
Why did Khruschev believe he could contruct the Berlin Wall ahead of the utlimatum deadline?
A
- Believed he could bully inexperienced JFK, esp after Bay of Pigs fiasco
- JFK had made critical error at Vienna Summit in 1961 by stating that US would not oppose creation of wall
65
Q
4
Describe the Berlin Wall Crisis 1961
A
- 27-28 October
- Armed US and Soviet tanks faced off at diplomatic checkpoint (Checkpoint Charlie) for 16 hours
- Triggered by dispute over East Berlin Police checks on US vehicles entering East Berlin (which violated Postdam Conference agreements)
- ‘flashpoint event’
66
Q
2
Describe how the Berlin Wall Crisis 1961 was ended
A
- JFK used backchannels to talk to Khruschev
- Came to mutual agreement to withdraw their respective tanks
67
Q
1
Describe how the Berlin Wall Crisis 1961 eased Cold War tensions
A
- Arguably brought stability by creating 2 Berlins
68
Q
4
Describe how the Berlin Wall Crisis 1961 spiked Cold War tensions
A
- US and USSR resumed nuclear testing
- Soviet propaganda claimed that US inability to prevent construction showed strength
- Khrushchev’s encouragement after crisis led him to place missiles in Cuba
- Western propaganda claimed it showed that Communists were forced to wall their citizens inside
69
Q
5
Describe the rise of Fidel Castro
A
- 1959, came to power via bloody revolution with guerilla leader Che Guevara
- had ejected all US business and investment
- in retaliation, USA refused to import Cuban sugar, Cuban’s largest export to USA
- 1961, ordered Havana’s US embassy to slim down its 300 member staff - suspected many of them were spies
- USA increased CIA funding for exiled Cuban dissidents in response
70
Q
2
Describe the cause of the stationing of Cuban missiles
A
- Khrushchev keen to extend Soviet influence to Caribbean to outmanoeuvre inexperienced JFK
- Bay of Pigs invasion 1961
71
Q
2
Describe the Bay of Pigs invasion 1961
A
- April 1961, JFK sanctioned invasion of Cuba
- Exiled dissidents who had left in 1959 would land at Bay of Pisg, create national uprising and overthrow Castro
72
Q
2
Why did the Bay of Pigs invasion 1961 fail?
A
- Poor planning
- Castro remained popular in Cuba
73
Q
3
Describe the effects of the Bay of Pigs Invasion 1961
A
- Humilitiation for USA and demonstrated JFK naivety
- End of 1961, Castro announced his conversion to Marxist-Leninist Communism
- Called on Latin America to initiate regional communist revolution
74
Q
4
Describe the placing and reveal of missiles in Cuba
A
- Sept 1962, Soviet technicians began to install ballistic misiles
- would balance US missiles situated in Italy and Turkey
- Oct 1962, American U2 spy plane took photographs which revealed construction of Soviet intermediate range missiles
- Proximity of missiles to Florida seriosuly threatened US security - a ballistic missile launch from Cuba could hit almost all major US city
75
Q
6
Describe the events of the Cuban Missile Crisis 1962
A
- 2 week ‘flashpoint event’ crisis - closest world came to nuclear war
- JFK decided to impose naval ‘quarantine’ (though permitted basic foodstuffs, so not full blockade) around Cuba to prevent Soviet missiles arriving
- Khruschev sent letter to JFK insisting that Soviet ships would force their way through blockade and threatened use of nuclear weapons
- Strategic Air Command placed at DEFCON 2 (stage before nuclear war) - only time in history
- Secret negotiations between Robert Kennedy and Anatoly Dobrynin (Soviet ambassador to US) ended crisis
76
Q
2
Describe the agreement that ended the Cuban Missile Crisis 1962
A
- USSR would remove missiles in Cuba
- USA would secretly withdraw missiles from Turkey
77
Q
3
Describe what happened the submarine incident in the Cuban Missile Crisis 1962
A
- Soviet submarine B-59
- lost connection and picked up supersonic sound of a depth charge believing nculear war to have begun
- 2/3 key commanders opted for nuclear missile launch, yet did not reach unanimous decision
78
Q
3
Describe the spike in tensions as a result of the Cuban Missile Crisis 1962
A
- Seen as victory in US (especially since deal over Turkey was not revealed for some time)
- Led to American overconfidence in Vietnam
- Soviets determined to not back down again and successfully achieved nuclear parity by the end of the decade
79
Q
3
Describe the easing of tensions as a result of the Cuban Missile Crisis 1962
A
- 24hr hotline telephone link between Kremlin and White House permanently established
- Would avoid lengthy communication by letter in event of future crisis
- Partial Test Ban treaty 1963 - USA and USSR agreed to stop testing nuclear weapons in atmosphere
80
Q
3
Describe the first Indochina war
A
- 1946-54
- Sept 1945, Vietnamese nationalist leader Ho Chi Minh proclaimed Vietnam’s independence from France and cpatured Hanoi
- Began war that pitted Ho’s communist-led Viet Minh regime in Hanoi (North Vietnam) against French-backed regime in Saigon (South Vietnam)
81
Q
5
Describe the end of the first indochina war
A
- French defeat at Dien Bien Phu
- Treaty of Geneva 1954
- French would leave Vietnam
- Vietnam partioned across 17th parallel until elections could be held
- US prevented elections being held in 1956
82
Q
2
Describe North and South Vietnam in the Vietnam War
A
North Vietnam - communist republic led by Ho Chi Minh
South Vietnam - capitalist republic led by Ngo Dinh Diem
83
Q
4
Describe Truman and Vietnam
A
- Neutral at first but soon acquiesced to French establishment
- Funded over 1/3 of France’s war costs by end of Presidency
- Sent 35 military advisers + transport planes/jeeps
- Containment policy to prevent communist victory influenced by domino theory
84
Q
3
What prompted Truman’s reexamination of Vietnam neutrality?
A
- Korean War
- Communist/Chinese aid
- Desire to prop up Vietnam economy
85
Q
2
Describe the conflciting attitudes of Eisenhower towards Vietnam
A
- Keen to avoid another SE Asian war after Korean experience
- Though more determined to prevent domino theory
86
Q
3
Describe Eisenhower and Vietnam
A
- Eisenhower spent $2bn in aid in South from 1955-60
- Military advisors increased to 1k
- Fighting had broke out between Diem’s forces and Viet-Cong by end of Eisenhower’s Presidency
87
Q
4
Describe the Strategic Hamlet Policy?
Began 1962
A
- Extensive security programme to move rural inhabitants into fortified villages
- More easily protected and segregated from Viet Cong
- Hugely unpopular in Vietnam
- 5k built by Sept 1962
88
Q
4
Describe the Gulf of Tonkin incident 1964
A
- 2nd August, 1964 US destroyer Maddox was fired at by North Vietnamese patrol boats in the Gulf of Tonkin
- 2 days later there was an alleged second attack but later evidence showed this never happened
- Johnson used this to persuade congress to pass the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution
- Suggested Johnson may have engineered the incident for greater military support
89
Q
2
Describe the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution
A
- 5 days after first incident
- Gave Johnson the power to use any military measure he thought necessary to defend South Vietnam
90
Q
3
Describe how the strengths of the Communists helped defeat the US in Vietnam
A
- North Vietnamese and Vietcong troops were highly motivated for the reunification of Vietnam
- Vietcong battle tactics and tunnels
- The North Vietnamese and Vietcong were supported by the population in the South and by the Soviet Union and China
91
Q
4
Describe the Vietcong battle tactics
A
- The Vietcong fought a low-tech war using Guerilla tactics
- They avoided head on battles which reduced the effectiveness of the US superior weaponry
- There tactics were much better suited to the jungle terrain of South Vietnam
- Ho Chi Minh trail (Annamite Range Trail)
92
Q
3
Describe the Vietcong tunnels
A
- These tunnels were deep and extensive, used for getting around and sheltering from bombing raids
- They were heavily booby-trapped making them a death trap for US forces and the Army of the Republic of South Vietnam
- The tunnels around Saigon ran for 320km
93
Q
2
Describe support for North Vietnam and the Vietcong
A
- Sympathetic Southerners hid the Vietcong fighters and aided their guerilla tactics
- The USSR and China supplied the North with rockets, tanks and fighters planes
94
Q
4
Describe how the weakness of the US forces led to their defeat in Vietnam
A
- US troops were inexperienced and unmotivated
- Lack of support at home
- US tactics such as Search and Destroy and chemical warfare further encouraged the Southern Vietnamese to turn on them
- The Tet Offensive, 31st January 1968
95
Q
4
Describe the My Lai massacre 1968
A
- A US patrol killed 347 Vietnamese civilians, wiping out the whole village of My Lai
- US military attempted to cover it up but this was unsuccessful
- Lieutenant Calley was found guilty of the murder of 109 people and was sentenced to 20 years hard labour in 1971 (he was released 1973)
- Shocked the US public
96
Q
3
Describe the Tet Offensive 1968
A
- The Vietcong and North Vietnamese launched an attack on over 100 towns and cities in South Vietnam during the New Year
- They even captured the US embassy in Saigon
- This brought further loss to US military morale and further criticism at home
97
Q
2
Describe Operation Rolling Thunder
A
- The US bombing campaign of North Vietnam, lasting 3.5 years from 1965 to 1968
- Aimed to destroy Vietcong supply routes to the South
98
Q
4
Describe Operation Trail Dust (Operation Ranch Hand)
A
- Chemical warfare programme from 1962-71
- ‘Agent Orange’ - highly toxic weed killer used to destroy the jungle
- Napalm - highlly flammable gelling agent
- Estimated 400k deaths due to later health complications
99
Q
3
Describe the US ‘Search and Destroy’ campaign in Vietnam
A
- 1965, Introduced by Commander Westmoreland
- Entailed using helicopters to descend on villages suspected of assisting Vietcong forces and destroying them
- Referred to by US troops as ‘Zippo’ raids after the the name of the lighters they used to set fire to the thatched houses
100
Q
4
Describe the cost of the Vietnam War
A
- By the time of the Tet Offensive in 1968, more than 36k of the US military had been killed
- Protests were being held in every major city
- In 1964, the Vietnam war cost the US government less than $0.5bn dollars but by 1968 annual cost was at $26.5 billion
- Cost $168bn in total
101
Q
4
Describe Nixon’s diplomatic role in US withdrawal from Vietnam
A
- Vietnamisation failed
- Peace talks began in 1968
- No real progress until Nixon’s visit to China in 1972, after which the Chinese government encouraged more cooperation from the North Vietnam government
- Paris Peace Accords signed 1973
102
Q
4
Describe the Paris Peace Accords 1973
A
- On 23rd January 1973, a ceasefire was signed with the US, followed four days later by a formal peace treaty
- The US promised to withdraw all of its troops and allow Vietcong to keep all captured areas of South Vietnam
- Nixon spoke of ‘peace with honor’
- Within 2 years, the Communists had defeated the South Vietnamese and reunited Vietnam (Fall of Saigon April 1975)
103
Q
5
Describe the effects of the Vietnam War
A
- Cost the US $30bn each year of war
- Johnson forced to pull out in 1968
- Encouraged improved Sino-Soviet relations
- Nixon Doctrine
- 60k US troops killed and 150k wounded
104
Q
2
Describe the change in JFK’s Vietnam policy
A
- Lambasted previous efforts to assist French
- Changed anti-intervention stance in 1960 election amid concerns he appeared soft on communism
105
Q
5
Describe JFK and Vietnam
A
- Provided South with jet fighters, helicopters, armoured personal vehicles
- Authorised Operation Trail Dust and Stategic Hamlet Policy in 1962
- By 1963, military advisors has risen to 16k
- Some advisors participated in secretive military operations themsleves
- Diem assassination
106
Q
4
Describe the unpopularity of Diem
A
- JFK originally a Diem supporter
- 1963, Malcolme Browne, American journalist, captured a Buddhist monk burning himself in Saigon in protest at South Vietnamese persecution of Buddhists
- Sanctioned CIA coup to overthrow his autocratic rule
- Resulted in his assassination 3 weeks later
107
Q
3
Outline the factions of the Vietnam War
A
- Vietminh - military coalition of ICP operational in North that opposed South Vietnam in Vietnam War
- NLF - political/military organisation created in 1960 to overthrow South Vietnam and reunite Vietnam under Communist Government
- Vietcong - guerilla insurgency branch of NLF active in South Vietnam
ICP - Indochinese Communist Party
NLF - National Liberation Front
108
Q
2
Describe the start of the Vietnam War
A
- US sent in troops in 1965 amid fears of inevitable South Vietnam collapse
- by 1967, 500k US troops in South Vietnam
109
Q
6
Describe LBJ and Vietnam
A
- Gulf of Tonkin incident 1964
- Authorised Operation Rolling Thunder
- Search and Destroy campaign
- Tet Offensive 1968
- My Lai Massacre 1968
- Johnson forced to pull out in 1968 election
110
Q
3
Describe ‘limited war’ in Vietnam
A
- Weaponry used in Vietnam War was restricted
- especially nuclear weapons which were not deployed in Vietnam
- Barry Goldwater suggestion that nuclear weapons could be used in Vietnam in 1964 drew public condemnation with ‘Daisy’ campaign ad becoming famed
111
Q
2
Describe the Ho Chi Minh trail (Annamite Range Trail)
A
- Logistical network of roads and trails that ran from North to South Vietnam and Laos and Cambodia
- System provided manpower and material support to Viet Cong
112
Q
4
Describe Nixon and Vietnam
A
- Campaigned in 1968 on promise to end Vietnam war
- ‘Vietnamisation’
- Banned agent orange and suspended operation trail dust in 1971
- End of war 1973 and fall of Saigon 1975
113
Q
4
Describe ‘Vietnamisation’
A
- Policy of Richard Nixon administration to end US involvement in the Vietnam War.
- Training to ‘expand, equip and train south Vietnamese forces’
- Would replace American soldiers with South Vietnamese troops
- Inevitably failed as South Vietnam army was weak and largely depleted
114
Q
6
Describe Nixon’s escalation to end the Vietnam War
A
- Operation Menu 1969-70 - secret bombing raids in neighbouring Cambodia
- Operation Barrel Roll 1964-73
- 1970, sent troops into Cambodia
- 1971, sanctioned a similar invasion in Laos
- Dropped 36k tonnage of bombs on North Vietnamese cities in late 1972 - operation linebacker
- All formed futile attempt to disrupt North Vietnamese supply lines and destroy Viet Cong camps
115
Q
3
Describe the death of Ho Chi Minh
A
- Died from heart failure in 1969
- Le Duan continued war
- Both held political philosophies of collective leader (distribution of power across Politburo)
116
Q
2
How many troops went into Vietnam in total?
A
- 2.6m total
- 550k at peak
117
Q
3
Describe the end of the Korean War
A
- US lost 27k troops
- 1m Korean citizens died
- Peace of sorts arrived in 1953
118
Q
1 + 3
List Cold War developments during Nixon’s Presidency
A
-
USSR
- ‘detente’ with USSR
-
China
- Vietnam developments
- Bombing of Laos and Cambodia
- Closer relations (Ping pong diplomacy, trade embargo, visit to China)
119
Q
4
Describe the Nixon Doctrine
A
- Outlined in July 1969 speech in Guam
- Stated that the US expected its allies to take care of their own military defence
- However USA would assist in development of defence capabilities (e.g. Vietnamisation)
- USA would act as ‘nuclear umbrella’ when required
120
Q
3
Why was detente possible?
A
- Both US and USSR wanted to limit arms in order to reduce their defence spending (Vietnam War costing $26.5bn annually by 1968)
- Nixon hoped improving relations with the USSR might result in Soviet encouragement the North Vietnamese to end the war
- USSR did not want the US to have closer relations with the Chinese than with them amid Sino-Soviet split
121
Q
2
Define detente
A
- Thaw in Cold War tensions
- The improvement of US-Soviet relations in the years after the Cuban Missile Crisis
122
Q
2
List examples of detente with the USSR
A
- SALT 1 (1972)
- Helsiniki Agreements 1975
123
Q
4
Describe SALT 1 (1972)
A
- Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty 1972
- Imposed limits on nuclear capabilities on US and USSR
- US and USSR restricted to 2 ABM (Anti-Ballistic Missile) complexes, limited to 100 ABMs in each
- First treaty of its kind
124
Q
4
Describe the Helsinki Agreements 1975
A
- The US, USSR and 33 other countries made declarations on 3 main issues
- The West recognised borders in Eastern Europe and the Soviets accepted the existence of West Germany
- Agreed to respect basic human rights and freedoms
- Closer economic, scientific and cultural links
125
Q
3
Describe Linkage
A
- Nixon FP that aimed to persuade Soviets to co-operate in restraining revolutions in the Third World
- in return for economic and nuclear concessions
- Soviet intervention in Angolan Civil War contradicted this policy
126
Q
3
Why did Chinese-US relations improve during the 1970s?
A
- Sino-Soviet ideological split saw USSR relations deteriorate - Mao criticised as revionist
- Nixon hoped relations with China might help end the war in Vietnam as the Chinese were close allies of the North Vietnamese
- Moa wanted to stimulate Chinese trade and industry through American trade
127
Q
3
Describe closer relations between China and the USA in Nixon’s presidency
A
- ‘Ping Pong Diplomacy’
- 1972, US lifted its long-standing trade embargo with China
- Nixon visited China in 1972
128
Q
5
What was ‘Ping-pong’ diplomacy?
A
- World Table Tennis Championship held in Japan from March-April 1971
- Glenn Cowan, an American player, missed his teams bus after practice and then offered a lift by the chinese team
- Cowan and Zedong’s unlikely friendship widely publicised
- Mao overrided Chinese Department of Foreign Affairs decision to grant all expenses-paid trip for American team in April 1971
- Opened relations and led to Nixon visit to China in 1972
129
Q
2
Describe Nixon’s China visit
A
- Visited Shanghai with Kissinger in February 1972
- Shanghai Communique issued - called for nations to normalise relations
130
Q
3
Describe the status of Henry Kissinger
A
- National Security Advisor 1969-75
- Secretary of State 1973-77
- As a political scientist himself, practiced Realpolitik - pragmatic approach to conducting diplomacy
131
Q
4
Describe the role of Henry Kissinger in the Cold War
A
- Pioneered ‘detente’ policy with USSR
- Orchestrated opening of US-China relations
- engaged in ‘shuttle diplomacy’ to end Yom Kippur War
- Controversially awarded 1973 Nobel Peace Prize for his role in negotiating end to Vietnam War
132
Q
3
Describe shuttle diplomacy
A
- Began in November 1973 following Yom Kippur War
- USA acted as intermediary between Israel and Arab coalition
- Invovled Kissinger successively travelling between opposing forces
133
Q
2
Describe the Yalta and Riga Axioms
A
- Yalta Axiom - negotiations could be done with Stalin
- Riga Axiom - Stalin was murderous dictator who only knows force, could not be negotiated between
134
Q
1
Describe Brinkmanship
A
Pursuit of dangerous policy to force other side to back down (e.g. Cuba, Berlin)
135
Q
3
Describe the Clark amendment 1975
A
- USSR intervened in Angola in 1974
- Congress barred US military involvement in Angola, with Nixon and Kissinger failing to persuade them
- Demonstrated renewed isolationism
136
Q
3
Describe the level of support for the Gulf of Tonkin incident
A
- 85% of public
- All of House of Representatives
- All of the Senate bar 2
