Civil rights (1945-75) Flashcards
1
Q
6
List the reasons for civil rights change 1945-75
A
- Role of individuals
- Role of Organisations
- Role of Courts
- Role of Presidents
- Role of mass media
- Impact of WW2
2
Q
3
Describe the different approaches to civil rights advancement in the period 1945-75
A
- Court action (e.g. NAACP)
- NVDA protests (boycotts, marches, sit-ins) - seen as controversial by court action supporters
- Violent direct action (e.g. Malcolm X and Black Panthers)
3
Q
8
Describe the main civil rights groups 1945-74
A
- NAACP
- MIA - Montgomery Improvement Association
- SCLC - Southern Christian Leadership Conference (an offshoot of MIA)
- CORE - Congress of Racial Equality (founded 1942) - more prominent 1960/61
- SNCC 1960 - Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee
- Nation of Islam 1930
- Organisation for Afro-American Unity 1964
- Black Panthers 1966 -
4
Q
4
Describe the impact of WW2 on civil rights
A
- Membership of NAACP rose from 50k in 1940 to 150k in 1945
- Many of new members were new urban workers rather than professionals whose higher wages enabled them to afford subscriptions
- NAACP raised profile of issues to both AA and white community
- Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) founded by James Farmer in 1942
5
Q
2
Describe the impact of the Cold War on civil rights
A
- New communist regimes promoted racial equality and criticised USA for lack of it
- Racial inequality made USA lacking in credibility on international stage
6
Q
3
Describe the positives in civil rights in Truman’s presidency
A
- Sept 1946, set up Civil Rights Commission to investigate racial abuse
- 1947, published ‘To Secure These Rights’ report
- Executive Order 9981
7
Q
4
Describe the ‘To Secure These Rights’ 1947 report
A
- Claimed USA unable to lead free world while AA were treated unfairly
Called for…
- anti-lynching legislation
- abolition of poll tax
- FEPC to be made permanent
8
Q
4
Describe executive order 9981
A
- Passed by Truman in July 1948
- Desegregate army
- Guarantee fair employment opportunities in civil service
- Fair Employment Board set up to replace FEPC
9
Q
3
Describe the impact of executive order 9981
A
- Successful despite doubts from senior military personnel
- By 1950, Air Force and Navy completely integrated
- Even military training camps in South completely integrated without significant difficulty
10
Q
2
Describe limits to civil rights in Truman’s presidency
A
- Senate coalition of 15 Republicans and 20 Southern Democrats blocked every civil rights legislation including anti-lynching bills
- Upholding of state rights used as justification
11
Q
5
Describe the main Civil Rights events in the 1950s
A
- Brown v Board of Education 1954
- Murder of Emmett Till 1955
- Montgomery Bus Boycott 1955-56
- Little Rock 1957
- Civil Rights Act 1957 (days after Little Rock)
12
Q
4
Describe Eisenhower’s role in civil rights
A
- Desegregation in DC
- Inadvertently appointed liberal, Earl Warren, as SC Chief Justice in 1953
- sent 10k troops to Little Rock
- Civil Rights Act 1957
13
Q
3
Describe limits to Eisenhower’s role in civil rights
A
- Held view that top-down legislation approach would not tame racism
- ‘I do not believe we can cure all the evils in men’s hearts by law’
- Little Rock intervention only came after media and MLK pressure
14
Q
3
Describe desegregation in DC
A
- Governed by Congress in 1950s with largely segregated facilities
- Eisenhower passed Executive Orders to desegregate government-ran shipyards and veterans’ hospitals
- Encouraged integration in schools, especially after Brown
15
Q
4
Describe the background to Brown v Board of Education of Topeka 1954
A
- NAACP amassed evidence to lead with Brown case to SC
- AA Reverend, Oliver Brown, challenged ‘separate but equal’
- 7yo daughter had to cross railroad tracks to go to school on other side of Topeka, Kansas
- White school had plently of places
16
Q
3
Describe the ruling Brown v Board of Education of Topeka 1954
A
- SC Chief Justice Earl Warren sympathetic to civil rights issues
- court ruled that ‘separate but equal’ was invalid in education
- referred to by some as ‘Black Monday’ or second American revolution
17
Q
5
Describe the impact of Brown v Board of Education of Topeka 1954
A
- NAACP Chief counsel, Thurgood Marshall, declared that all schools would be desegregated within 5 years
- Brown v Board of Education (1955) - SC ordered states to integrate schools with ‘deliberate speed’ and gave federal district courts right to examine at whether schools were desegregating
- By 1956-57, 723 school districts were desegregated
- affected 300k AA schoolchildren
- Little Rock 1957
18
Q
7
Describe limits to Brown v Board of Education of Topeka 1954
A
- Did not address what schools could teach or not
- SC declined to implement any deadlines, recognising difficulties involved
- No sanctions for non-implementation (lack of enforcement power)
- by 1956-57, 240k AAs remained in segregated schools, mainly in South
- Alabama legislators declared ruling ‘null, void and no effect’
- Some states imposed penalties on districts that began desegregation process
- by 1967, 1/3 of Mississippi school districts had achieved no desegregation
19
Q
3
Describe progress in AA education the later 1950s
A
- By Jan 1956, the SC upheld Brown v Board ruling in 19 cases
- The NAACP had upwards of 170 cases pending
- Little Rock 1957
20
Q
6
Describe limits in AA education in the later 1950s
A
- Georgia and NC gave grants to ensure all white pupils could attend segregated private schools (which were not affected by Brown ruling)
- 1959, Prince Edward County, Virginia, closed all public schools
- ‘Public placement’ laws allowed racially biased tests for best schools
- Some states delegated all education power to local boards, making it impossible for each individual one to be challenged in courts
- By 1964, only 2% of AAs in the 11 most resistant southern states went to fully-integrated schools
- Southern Manifesto
21
Q
4
Describe the ‘Southern Manifesto’
A
- Issued March 1956
- Signed by 22 Southern senators and 82 Southern representatives
- Accused the SC of abuse of power
- Insisted segregation was state issue
22
Q
4
Describe the Little Rock High School events in 1957
A
- Governor of Arkansas, Faubus used National Guard troops to bar the entry of nine black children to Central High School
- Followed federal district court ruling that school must be desegregated
- Eisenhower sent in 10k federal troops to control the Arkansas National Guard and escort the children into school and restrain white protestors
- Little Rock Nine - Elizabeth Eckford
23
Q
5
Describe the significance of the Little Rock High School events in 1957
A
- Evidence of Brown ruling enforcement
- Demonstrated states could be overuled by Federal Govt when necessary
- Demonstrations seen globally on televisions and in newspapers
- USA seen as unequal and divided nation when it was criticising lack of basic human rights in oppressive Communist states
- AA activists saw that that reliance on federal courts was not enough to secure change
24
Q
6
Describe the murder of Emmett Till 1955
A
- August 1955
- 14 yr old boy visiting relatives in Money, Mississippi
- Flirted with Carolyn Bryant, a white cashier, at a grocery store
- 4 days later, he was kidnapped and lynched by 2 white men: Roy Bryant and John William Milam
- Sept 1955, all-white jury acquitted defendants after 67-minute deliberation
- Galvanised Civil Rights movement
25
# 4
Describe the funeral of Emmett Till
* Mamie Till decided on open-casket funeral
* Tens of thousands lined streets
* Pictures of mutilated corpse circulated widely and generated intense public reaction
* Notably in the black publications: *Jet* magazine and *The Chicago Defender*
26
# 6
Describe the Montgomery bus boycott 1955
* Dec 1955, Rosa Parks thrown off a bus for refusing to give up her seat to a white person
* Parks had been secretary of local NAACP for 12 years
* 50k AA boycotted the bus system for 381 days
* Successfully staged by Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA)
* Nov 1956, the Supreme Court ruled segregation on buses to be unconstitutional in *Browder v Gayle* after initiative by NAACP
* Evidenced success of NVDA
27
# 6
Describe the role of MLK in the Montgomery Bus Boycott
* Was a minister at Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery
* Led boycott due to oratory and cautious approach
* Organised frequent night-time rallies in his and other local churches
* Used carpools to transfer AAs to work
* His oratory created a vital link between the intellectual Civil Rights leadership and less educated AA, which NAACP had failed to capture
* Set up Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) in 1957 to coordinate local NVDA protest groups
28
# 2
Describe the Civil Rights Act 1957
- Increased powers of Fed Govt to intervene in voting rights
- Thurmond filibustered for 24hrs
29
# 4
Describe the role of the NAACP 1945-75
* Strong belied in advancing change through Federal Courts
* e.g. *Brown* 1954 and *Browder* 1956
* Yet marked a slow process
* Thurgood Marshall served as President of the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund
30
# 4
Describe JFK's role in civil rights
* Appointed Thurgood Marshall to circuit court of appeal
* Threatened legal action to Louisiana for refusing to fund desegregated schools
* Sent 23k troops to protect James Meredith, a black student attending University of Mississippi.
* Introduced Civil Rights Bill 1963 to promote equal housing and education (defeated in Congress)
31
# 5
Describe Johnson's role in civil rights
* Civil Rights Act 1964
* Voting Rights Act 1965
* 1967, bans on interracial marriage removed
* elevated Thurgood Marshall to SC in 1967
* Civil Rights (Fair Housing) Act 1968 - expanded on previous acts and prohibited discrimination concerning housing
32
# 3
Describe the Greensboro sit-ins 1960
* 1960, Greensboro, North Carolina
* Students organise a sit-in at an all white cafe
* By August 1961, the sit-ins had 70k participants and over 3k arrests
33
# 3
Describe the impact of the Greensboro sit-ins 1960
* Spread to 55 cities in 13 states within 3 months
* Woolworths ended policy of racial segregation in Southern US
* Led to formation of SNCC
34
# 4
Describe the 'freedom rides' 1960
* Dec 1960, the SC ruled interstate travel should be desegregated
* CORE sent integrated bus rides into the still segregated south
* Over 300 riders arrested
* 22 Sept 1961, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) issued a regulation that ended segregation in bus terminals
35
# 2
Describe King's peaceful methods
* Methods originated from Ghandi and Booker T Washington
* Aimed to avoid unecessary alienation of whites
36
# 4
List marches led by MLK
* The Albany Movement 1961
* Birmingham Campaign 1963
* March on Washington 1963
* Selma Marches 1965
37
# 5
Describe the Albany Movement 1961
* March mobilised by SNCC (Student Non-Violent Co-ordinating Committee)
* Albany, Georgia
* Aimed to end all forms of segregation in city
* MLK led march and arrested
* Put spotlight on civil rights cause nationally and internationally
38
# 6
Describe the Birmingham Campaign 1963
* May 1963, march organised by SCLC
* MLK knew racist police chief, Bull O'Connor, would react violently - aiming to publicise violent authorities
* The police used dogs and the fire department used high pressure water hoses
* 2k adults and 1.3k children arrested
* Televised widely in USA and worldwide
* Pushed JFK to progress Civil Rights Bill 1963
39
# 5
Describe the March on Washington 1963
* August 1963
* 250k participated
* Unscripted 17-minute 'I have a dream' speech
* Delivered in front of Lincoln Memorial, same location as Lincoln's Emancipation Proclomation delivery 100 years prior
* MLK and other civil rights leaders subsequently met with President Kennedy to dicuss legislation, with Kennedy offering support
40
# 3
Describe the background of the March from Selma 1965
* March from Selma to Montgomery to present a petition demanding voting rights
* AA made up majority of population, but just 2% of registered voters in Dallas County
* MLK gave SCLC backing
41
# 6
Describe the violent events of the March from Selma
* 7 March 1965
* 600 demonstrators
* Led by 25-year old activist John Lewis
* Marches attempted to cross the Edmund Pettus Bridge in Selma, Alabama
* Police, state troopers, and a citizen 'posse' violently attacked marchers
* Known as 'bloody sunday'
42
# 2
Describe the aftermath of the march from Selma 1965
* LBJ gave famous 'The American Promise' speech
* Introduced Voting Rights bill to Congress
43
# 2
Describe MLK's campaigns in North
* 1965-66, supported Chicago Freedom Movement covering demands such as open housing, education improvement, criminal justice system - led to 1968 Fair Housing Act
* 1968, organised Poor People's Campaign for socio-economic justice for all - carried out posthumoulsy
## Footnote
open housing - sale and rental of private housing free of discriminatory practices
44
# 3
Describe the assassination of MLK
* April 1968, Memphis
* Giving speech in support of black refuse workers striking for equal treatment
* Assassinated by a white racist James Earl Ray
45
# 4
Describe the achievements of MLK
* Speeches attracted considerable media attention and respect
* March on Washington put pressure on Kennedy to introduce Civil Rights legislation which led to 1964 Act
* Successfully coordinated NVDA and freedom marches e.g. Birmingham Campaign
* Rise in voter registration following Voting Rights Act 1965
46
# 5
Describe the limitations of King
* Marches rarely achieved aims e.g. Albany movement
* Criticised for using children in Birmingham March 1963
* Disatisfaction with peaceful movement led to rise of Malcolm X
* Focussed on civil and political equality, rather than economic and social advances
* Focus on King downplays role of groups (NAACP, SCLC, CORE, SNCC) and Presidents
47
# 4
Describe Nation of Islam
* Ied by Elijah Muhammad in 60s
* He claimed Allah originally created people black and other races were created by an evil scientist, Yakob
* One day Allah would return and end white supremacy
* This was particularly attractive to black americans who felt Christianity was the religion of slave owners
48
# 2
Describe Malcolm X in the Nation of Islam
* Increased membership to 100k by 1964 by travelling nation
* 1960, 75% of members of Nation of Islam were aged 17-35
49
# 2
Describe Malcolm X's name change
* Previously Malcolm Little
* Replaced Little with X to represent his unknown African name
50
# 2
Describe Malcolm X in opposition to King
* Criticised the 1963 March on Washington as 'the farce on Washington' organised by whites
* Felt violence could be justified not just in self-defence, but as means to secure a seperate black nation
51
# 3
Describe Malcolm X exiting the Nation of Islam
* March 1964, Malcolm left Nation of Islam after dispute with Elijah Muhammad
* Muhammed increasingy jealous of Malcolm X fame and influence
* Malcom wanted to make political speeches, which Nation of Islam opposed
52
# 4
Describe Malcolm X after leaving the Nation of Islam
* 1964, Malcolm visited Mecca and saw muslims of different races interacting as equal and moved away from racial separatism
* 1964, set up secular OAAU (Organisation for Afro-American Unity) for non-muslim AAs
* Increasing criticism of speeches from Nation of Islam
* Assassinated in 1965, purportedly by Nation of Islam
53
# 5
Describe the successes of Malcolm X
* Adept organiser and speaker
* Set up educational and social programmes aimed at black youth in ghetto areas
* Served as perfect role model: transforming from cocaine addict and armed robber into a national leader
* Did much to connect young AAs to African heritage and raise their self-esteem, unlike MLK
* Laid foundation for more radical movement such as Black Power and Black Panthers
54
# 3
Describe the failures of Malcolm X
* Did not achieve tangible successes of MLK
* Drew intense criticism for violence advocacy
* Advocacy of separatism (segregation in separate countries) unrealistic and unattainable
55
# 5
Describe black riots in the 1960s
* 1964-66, 300 riots
* August 1965, 30k people rioted in LA
* Killed 34 and causing $40 million in property damage
* Peaked summer 1967 with riots in 125 cities
* 1965-67, 21k federal troops and 34k National Guardsman were involved in ending riots that caused $145m in damage
56
# 7
Describe the Black Power movement
* By 1966, SNCC distanced themselves from MLK
* Taken up by Stokely Carmichael and the SNCC in 1966
* Adopted slogan 'Black is beautiful'
* Encouraged black pride, fashion and culture
* Carmichael criticised for aggressive attitude and denunciation of Vietnam War
* Gained particular publicity at the 1968 Mexico City Olympics when black podium athletes Smith and Carlos both raised their hands in the Black Power salute
* First Black History Month at Kent State University in 1970
## Footnote
SNCC - Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
57
# 6
Describe the formation and rise of the Black Panthers
* Oct 1966, Huey Newton and Bobby Seale founded Black Panthers in Oakland, CA
* Active in many Northern cities e.g. Seattle, Chicago, Philadelphia
* Heavily influenced by Malcolm X
* Issued 10-point programme including end to police brutality, decent housing, education and full employment for AAs
* By end of 1968, had 5k members
* *The Black Panther* publication had circulation of 250k by 1969
58
# 4
Describe the militant methods of the Black Panthers
* Prepared to utilise revolutionary means
* Wore uniforms and provided weapons training for members
* rally call was 'power to the people'
* 1967, founder Huey Newton alleged to have killed Oakland police officer John Frey and sentenced a year later (though decision later reversed)
59
# 6
Describe the social attitude and policy methods of the Black Panthers
* rejected white culture and sported 'Afro' haircuts
* Set up practical community action programmes which won support among ghetto AAs
* Served breakfasts to poor AA children
* Established healthcare clinics
* Provided childcare for working measures
* Promoted awareness of black culture and history, culminating in more AA studies in educational institutions
60
# 3
Describe the fall of the Black Panthers
* 21 yo Deputy Chairman, Fred Hapton, assassinated in 1969 in what was revealed to be FBI authorised act
* Series of violent events and internal divisions saw 27 panthers killed and 700 injured in police confrontations in 1969
* BPP disbanded by 1982
61
# 4
Describe George Wallace
* Governor of Alabama (1963-67, 1971-79, 1983-87)
* at time of Birmingham, Selma Marches
* Ran as Dixiecrat in 1968 election
* 1963 inaugral address, announced support for 'segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever'
62
# 3
Describe the political representation of AAs by 1975
* No black mayors in 1960s
* Elected black mayors in LA, Detroit, Cleveland in 1970s
* Number of AAs in Congress increased from 11 in 1970 to 18 by end of decade
63
# 1
Describe economic success for AAs by 1975
* Proportion of AA families with average income over $10k rose in 3% in 1960 to 31% at start of 1970s
64
# 3
Describe socio-economic negatives for AAs by 1975
* black male teenage unemployment at 50%
* Half of black teenagers dropped out of school before graduation
* Infant morality rate for u1s twice as high for AAs
