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American History - Ben > Civil rights (1945-75) > Flashcards

Civil rights (1945-75) Flashcards

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1
Q

6

List the reasons for civil rights change 1945-75

A
  • Role of individuals
  • Role of Organisations
  • Role of Courts
  • Role of Presidents
  • Role of mass media
  • Impact of WW2
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2
Q

3

Describe the different approaches to civil rights advancement in the period 1945-75

A
  • Court action (e.g. NAACP)
  • NVDA protests (boycotts, marches, sit-ins) - seen as controversial by court action supporters
  • Violent direct action (e.g. Malcolm X and Black Panthers)
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3
Q

8

Describe the main civil rights groups 1945-74

A
  • NAACP
  • MIA - Montgomery Improvement Association
  • SCLC - Southern Christian Leadership Conference (an offshoot of MIA)
  • CORE - Congress of Racial Equality (founded 1942) - more prominent 1960/61
  • SNCC 1960 - Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee
  • Nation of Islam 1930
  • Organisation for Afro-American Unity 1964
  • Black Panthers 1966 -
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4
Q

4

Describe the impact of WW2 on civil rights

A
  • Membership of NAACP rose from 50k in 1940 to 150k in 1945
  • Many of new members were new urban workers rather than professionals whose higher wages enabled them to afford subscriptions
  • NAACP raised profile of issues to both AA and white community
  • Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) founded by James Farmer in 1942
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5
Q

2

Describe the impact of the Cold War on civil rights

A
  • New communist regimes promoted racial equality and criticised USA for lack of it
  • Racial inequality made USA lacking in credibility on international stage
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6
Q

3

Describe the positives in civil rights in Truman’s presidency

A
  • Sept 1946, set up Civil Rights Commission to investigate racial abuse
  • 1947, published ‘To Secure These Rights’ report
  • Executive Order 9981
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7
Q

4

Describe the ‘To Secure These Rights’ 1947 report

A
  • Claimed USA unable to lead free world while AA were treated unfairly

Called for…

  • anti-lynching legislation
  • abolition of poll tax
  • FEPC to be made permanent
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8
Q

4

Describe executive order 9981

A
  • Passed by Truman in July 1948
  • Desegregate army
  • Guarantee fair employment opportunities in civil service
  • Fair Employment Board set up to replace FEPC
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9
Q

3

Describe the impact of executive order 9981

A
  • Successful despite doubts from senior military personnel
  • By 1950, Air Force and Navy completely integrated
  • Even military training camps in South completely integrated without significant difficulty
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10
Q

2

Describe limits to civil rights in Truman’s presidency

A
  • Senate coalition of 15 Republicans and 20 Southern Democrats blocked every civil rights legislation including anti-lynching bills
  • Upholding of state rights used as justification
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11
Q

5

Describe the main Civil Rights events in the 1950s

A
  • Brown v Board of Education 1954
  • Murder of Emmett Till 1955
  • Montgomery Bus Boycott 1955-56
  • Little Rock 1957
  • Civil Rights Act 1957 (days after Little Rock)
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12
Q

4

Describe Eisenhower’s role in civil rights

A
  • Desegregation in DC
  • Inadvertently appointed liberal, Earl Warren, as SC Chief Justice in 1953
  • sent 10k troops to Little Rock
  • Civil Rights Act 1957
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13
Q

3

Describe limits to Eisenhower’s role in civil rights

A
  • Held view that top-down legislation approach would not tame racism
  • ‘I do not believe we can cure all the evils in men’s hearts by law’
  • Little Rock intervention only came after media and MLK pressure
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14
Q

3

Describe desegregation in DC

A
  • Governed by Congress in 1950s with largely segregated facilities
  • Eisenhower passed Executive Orders to desegregate government-ran shipyards and veterans’ hospitals
  • Encouraged integration in schools, especially after Brown
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15
Q

4

Describe the background to Brown v Board of Education of Topeka 1954

A
  • NAACP amassed evidence to lead with Brown case to SC
  • AA Reverend, Oliver Brown, challenged ‘separate but equal’
  • 7yo daughter had to cross railroad tracks to go to school on other side of Topeka, Kansas
  • White school had plently of places
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16
Q

3

Describe the ruling Brown v Board of Education of Topeka 1954

A
  • SC Chief Justice Earl Warren sympathetic to civil rights issues
  • court ruled that ‘separate but equal’ was invalid in education
  • referred to by some as ‘Black Monday’ or second American revolution
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17
Q

5

Describe the impact of Brown v Board of Education of Topeka 1954

A
  • NAACP Chief counsel, Thurgood Marshall, declared that all schools would be desegregated within 5 years
  • Brown v Board of Education (1955) - SC ordered states to integrate schools with ‘deliberate speed’ and gave federal district courts right to examine at whether schools were desegregating
  • By 1956-57, 723 school districts were desegregated
  • affected 300k AA schoolchildren
  • Little Rock 1957
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18
Q

7

Describe limits to Brown v Board of Education of Topeka 1954

A
  • Did not address what schools could teach or not
  • SC declined to implement any deadlines, recognising difficulties involved
  • No sanctions for non-implementation (lack of enforcement power)
  • by 1956-57, 240k AAs remained in segregated schools, mainly in South
  • Alabama legislators declared ruling ‘null, void and no effect’
  • Some states imposed penalties on districts that began desegregation process
  • by 1967, 1/3 of Mississippi school districts had achieved no desegregation
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19
Q

3

Describe progress in AA education the later 1950s

A
  • By Jan 1956, the SC upheld Brown v Board ruling in 19 cases
  • The NAACP had upwards of 170 cases pending
  • Little Rock 1957
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20
Q

6

Describe limits in AA education in the later 1950s

A
  • Georgia and NC gave grants to ensure all white pupils could attend segregated private schools (which were not affected by Brown ruling)
  • 1959, Prince Edward County, Virginia, closed all public schools
  • ‘Public placement’ laws allowed racially biased tests for best schools
  • Some states delegated all education power to local boards, making it impossible for each individual one to be challenged in courts
  • By 1964, only 2% of AAs in the 11 most resistant southern states went to fully-integrated schools
  • Southern Manifesto
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21
Q

4

Describe the ‘Southern Manifesto’

A
  • Issued March 1956
  • Signed by 22 Southern senators and 82 Southern representatives
  • Accused the SC of abuse of power
  • Insisted segregation was state issue
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22
Q

4

Describe the Little Rock High School events in 1957

A
  • Governor of Arkansas, Faubus used National Guard troops to bar the entry of nine black children to Central High School
  • Followed federal district court ruling that school must be desegregated
  • Eisenhower sent in 10k federal troops to control the Arkansas National Guard and escort the children into school and restrain white protestors
  • Little Rock Nine - Elizabeth Eckford
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23
Q

5

Describe the significance of the Little Rock High School events in 1957

A
  • Evidence of Brown ruling enforcement
  • Demonstrated states could be overuled by Federal Govt when necessary
  • Demonstrations seen globally on televisions and in newspapers
  • USA seen as unequal and divided nation when it was criticising lack of basic human rights in oppressive Communist states
  • AA activists saw that that reliance on federal courts was not enough to secure change
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24
Q

6

Describe the murder of Emmett Till 1955

A
  • August 1955
  • 14 yr old boy visiting relatives in Money, Mississippi
  • Flirted with Carolyn Bryant, a white cashier, at a grocery store
  • 4 days later, he was kidnapped and lynched by 2 white men: Roy Bryant and John William Milam
  • Sept 1955, all-white jury acquitted defendants after 67-minute deliberation
  • Galvanised Civil Rights movement
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25
Q

4

Describe the funeral of Emmett Till

A
  • Mamie Till decided on open-casket funeral
  • Tens of thousands lined streets
  • Pictures of mutilated corpse circulated widely and generated intense public reaction
  • Notably in the black publications: Jet magazine and The Chicago Defender
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26
Q

6

Describe the Montgomery bus boycott 1955

A
  • Dec 1955, Rosa Parks thrown off a bus for refusing to give up her seat to a white person
  • Parks had been secretary of local NAACP for 12 years
  • 50k AA boycotted the bus system for 381 days
  • Successfully staged by Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA)
  • Nov 1956, the Supreme Court ruled segregation on buses to be unconstitutional in Browder v Gayle after initiative by NAACP
  • Evidenced success of NVDA
27
Q

6

Describe the role of MLK in the Montgomery Bus Boycott

A
  • Was a minister at Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery
  • Led boycott due to oratory and cautious approach
  • Organised frequent night-time rallies in his and other local churches
  • Used carpools to transfer AAs to work
  • His oratory created a vital link between the intellectual Civil Rights leadership and less educated AA, which NAACP had failed to capture
  • Set up Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) in 1957 to coordinate local NVDA protest groups
28
Q

2

Describe the Civil Rights Act 1957

A
  • Increased powers of Fed Govt to intervene in voting rights
  • Thurmond filibustered for 24hrs
29
Q

4

Describe the role of the NAACP 1945-75

A
  • Strong belied in advancing change through Federal Courts
  • e.g. Brown 1954 and Browder 1956
  • Yet marked a slow process
  • Thurgood Marshall served as President of the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund
30
Q

4

Describe JFK’s role in civil rights

A
  • Appointed Thurgood Marshall to circuit court of appeal
  • Threatened legal action to Louisiana for refusing to fund desegregated schools
  • Sent 23k troops to protect James Meredith, a black student attending University of Mississippi.
  • Introduced Civil Rights Bill 1963 to promote equal housing and education (defeated in Congress)
31
Q

5

Describe Johnson’s role in civil rights

A
  • Civil Rights Act 1964
  • Voting Rights Act 1965
  • 1967, bans on interracial marriage removed
  • elevated Thurgood Marshall to SC in 1967
  • Civil Rights (Fair Housing) Act 1968 - expanded on previous acts and prohibited discrimination concerning housing
32
Q

3

Describe the Greensboro sit-ins 1960

A
  • 1960, Greensboro, North Carolina
  • Students organise a sit-in at an all white cafe
  • By August 1961, the sit-ins had 70k participants and over 3k arrests
33
Q

3

Describe the impact of the Greensboro sit-ins 1960

A
  • Spread to 55 cities in 13 states within 3 months
  • Woolworths ended policy of racial segregation in Southern US
  • Led to formation of SNCC
34
Q

4

Describe the ‘freedom rides’ 1960

A
  • Dec 1960, the SC ruled interstate travel should be desegregated
  • CORE sent integrated bus rides into the still segregated south
  • Over 300 riders arrested
  • 22 Sept 1961, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) issued a regulation that ended segregation in bus terminals
35
Q

2

Describe King’s peaceful methods

A
  • Methods originated from Ghandi and Booker T Washington
  • Aimed to avoid unecessary alienation of whites
36
Q

4

List marches led by MLK

A
  • The Albany Movement 1961
  • Birmingham Campaign 1963
  • March on Washington 1963
  • Selma Marches 1965
37
Q

5

Describe the Albany Movement 1961

A
  • March mobilised by SNCC (Student Non-Violent Co-ordinating Committee)
  • Albany, Georgia
  • Aimed to end all forms of segregation in city
  • MLK led march and arrested
  • Put spotlight on civil rights cause nationally and internationally
38
Q

6

Describe the Birmingham Campaign 1963

A
  • May 1963, march organised by SCLC
  • MLK knew racist police chief, Bull O’Connor, would react violently - aiming to publicise violent authorities
  • The police used dogs and the fire department used high pressure water hoses
  • 2k adults and 1.3k children arrested
  • Televised widely in USA and worldwide
  • Pushed JFK to progress Civil Rights Bill 1963
39
Q

5

Describe the March on Washington 1963

A
  • August 1963
  • 250k participated
  • Unscripted 17-minute ‘I have a dream’ speech
  • Delivered in front of Lincoln Memorial, same location as Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclomation delivery 100 years prior
  • MLK and other civil rights leaders subsequently met with President Kennedy to dicuss legislation, with Kennedy offering support
40
Q

3

Describe the background of the March from Selma 1965

A
  • March from Selma to Montgomery to present a petition demanding voting rights
  • AA made up majority of population, but just 2% of registered voters in Dallas County
  • MLK gave SCLC backing
41
Q

6

Describe the violent events of the March from Selma

A
  • 7 March 1965
  • 600 demonstrators
  • Led by 25-year old activist John Lewis
  • Marches attempted to cross the Edmund Pettus Bridge in Selma, Alabama
  • Police, state troopers, and a citizen ‘posse’ violently attacked marchers
  • Known as ‘bloody sunday’
42
Q

2

Describe the aftermath of the march from Selma 1965

A
  • LBJ gave famous ‘The American Promise’ speech
  • Introduced Voting Rights bill to Congress
43
Q

2

Describe MLK’s campaigns in North

A
  • 1965-66, supported Chicago Freedom Movement covering demands such as open housing, education improvement, criminal justice system - led to 1968 Fair Housing Act
  • 1968, organised Poor People’s Campaign for socio-economic justice for all - carried out posthumoulsy

open housing - sale and rental of private housing free of discriminatory practices

44
Q

3

Describe the assassination of MLK

A
  • April 1968, Memphis
  • Giving speech in support of black refuse workers striking for equal treatment
  • Assassinated by a white racist James Earl Ray
45
Q

4

Describe the achievements of MLK

A
  • Speeches attracted considerable media attention and respect
  • March on Washington put pressure on Kennedy to introduce Civil Rights legislation which led to 1964 Act
  • Successfully coordinated NVDA and freedom marches e.g. Birmingham Campaign
  • Rise in voter registration following Voting Rights Act 1965
46
Q

5

Describe the limitations of King

A
  • Marches rarely achieved aims e.g. Albany movement
  • Criticised for using children in Birmingham March 1963
  • Disatisfaction with peaceful movement led to rise of Malcolm X
  • Focussed on civil and political equality, rather than economic and social advances
  • Focus on King downplays role of groups (NAACP, SCLC, CORE, SNCC) and Presidents
47
Q

4

Describe Nation of Islam

A
  • Ied by Elijah Muhammad in 60s
  • He claimed Allah originally created people black and other races were created by an evil scientist, Yakob
  • One day Allah would return and end white supremacy
  • This was particularly attractive to black americans who felt Christianity was the religion of slave owners
48
Q

2

Describe Malcolm X in the Nation of Islam

A
  • Increased membership to 100k by 1964 by travelling nation
  • 1960, 75% of members of Nation of Islam were aged 17-35
49
Q

2

Describe Malcolm X’s name change

A
  • Previously Malcolm Little
  • Replaced Little with X to represent his unknown African name
50
Q

2

Describe Malcolm X in opposition to King

A
  • Criticised the 1963 March on Washington as ‘the farce on Washington’ organised by whites
  • Felt violence could be justified not just in self-defence, but as means to secure a seperate black nation
51
Q

3

Describe Malcolm X exiting the Nation of Islam

A
  • March 1964, Malcolm left Nation of Islam after dispute with Elijah Muhammad
  • Muhammed increasingy jealous of Malcolm X fame and influence
  • Malcom wanted to make political speeches, which Nation of Islam opposed
52
Q

4

Describe Malcolm X after leaving the Nation of Islam

A
  • 1964, Malcolm visited Mecca and saw muslims of different races interacting as equal and moved away from racial separatism
  • 1964, set up secular OAAU (Organisation for Afro-American Unity) for non-muslim AAs
  • Increasing criticism of speeches from Nation of Islam
  • Assassinated in 1965, purportedly by Nation of Islam
53
Q

5

Describe the successes of Malcolm X

A
  • Adept organiser and speaker
  • Set up educational and social programmes aimed at black youth in ghetto areas
  • Served as perfect role model: transforming from cocaine addict and armed robber into a national leader
  • Did much to connect young AAs to African heritage and raise their self-esteem, unlike MLK
  • Laid foundation for more radical movement such as Black Power and Black Panthers
54
Q

3

Describe the failures of Malcolm X

A
  • Did not achieve tangible successes of MLK
  • Drew intense criticism for violence advocacy
  • Advocacy of separatism (segregation in separate countries) unrealistic and unattainable
55
Q

5

Describe black riots in the 1960s

A
  • 1964-66, 300 riots
  • August 1965, 30k people rioted in LA
  • Killed 34 and causing $40 million in property damage
  • Peaked summer 1967 with riots in 125 cities
  • 1965-67, 21k federal troops and 34k National Guardsman were involved in ending riots that caused $145m in damage
56
Q

7

Describe the Black Power movement

A
  • By 1966, SNCC distanced themselves from MLK
  • Taken up by Stokely Carmichael and the SNCC in 1966
  • Adopted slogan ‘Black is beautiful’
  • Encouraged black pride, fashion and culture
  • Carmichael criticised for aggressive attitude and denunciation of Vietnam War
  • Gained particular publicity at the 1968 Mexico City Olympics when black podium athletes Smith and Carlos both raised their hands in the Black Power salute
  • First Black History Month at Kent State University in 1970

SNCC - Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee

57
Q

6

Describe the formation and rise of the Black Panthers

A
  • Oct 1966, Huey Newton and Bobby Seale founded Black Panthers in Oakland, CA
  • Active in many Northern cities e.g. Seattle, Chicago, Philadelphia
  • Heavily influenced by Malcolm X
  • Issued 10-point programme including end to police brutality, decent housing, education and full employment for AAs
  • By end of 1968, had 5k members
  • The Black Panther publication had circulation of 250k by 1969
58
Q

4

Describe the militant methods of the Black Panthers

A
  • Prepared to utilise revolutionary means
  • Wore uniforms and provided weapons training for members
  • rally call was ‘power to the people’
  • 1967, founder Huey Newton alleged to have killed Oakland police officer John Frey and sentenced a year later (though decision later reversed)
59
Q

6

Describe the social attitude and policy methods of the Black Panthers

A
  • rejected white culture and sported ‘Afro’ haircuts
  • Set up practical community action programmes which won support among ghetto AAs
  • Served breakfasts to poor AA children
  • Established healthcare clinics
  • Provided childcare for working measures
  • Promoted awareness of black culture and history, culminating in more AA studies in educational institutions
60
Q

3

Describe the fall of the Black Panthers

A
  • 21 yo Deputy Chairman, Fred Hapton, assassinated in 1969 in what was revealed to be FBI authorised act
  • Series of violent events and internal divisions saw 27 panthers killed and 700 injured in police confrontations in 1969
  • BPP disbanded by 1982
61
Q

4

Describe George Wallace

A
  • Governor of Alabama (1963-67, 1971-79, 1983-87)
  • at time of Birmingham, Selma Marches
  • Ran as Dixiecrat in 1968 election
  • 1963 inaugral address, announced support for ‘segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever’
62
Q

3

Describe the political representation of AAs by 1975

A
  • No black mayors in 1960s
  • Elected black mayors in LA, Detroit, Cleveland in 1970s
  • Number of AAs in Congress increased from 11 in 1970 to 18 by end of decade
63
Q

1

Describe economic success for AAs by 1975

A
  • Proportion of AA families with average income over $10k rose in 3% in 1960 to 31% at start of 1970s
64
Q

3

Describe socio-economic negatives for AAs by 1975

A
  • black male teenage unemployment at 50%
  • Half of black teenagers dropped out of school before graduation
  • Infant morality rate for u1s twice as high for AAs

American History - Ben (22 decks)

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