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yr 2 sem 2 > Cogneuro wk 3 > Flashcards

Cogneuro wk 3 Flashcards

1
Q

What range of air pressure changes can the human auditory system detect?

A

From 0.00002 to over 100 Pascals.

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2
Q

What is the goal of the hearing brain?

A

To construct an internal model of the world that can be interpreted and acted upon, rather than simply detecting raw sound waves.

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3
Q

How does hearing achieve constancy, similar to vision?

A
  • We perceive a tune as the same even if played in a different key.
  • We recognize voices despite distortions (e.g., phone, megaphone).
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4
Q

How does stored knowledge influence hearing?

A

The brain fills in missing auditory information based on prior experience (e.g., recognizing missing lyrics in a familiar song).

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5
Q

What evidence supports the role of stored knowledge in auditory perception?

A

Kraemer et al. (2005) found that auditory cortical areas are more active during gaps in familiar songs, showing that the brain “fills in” missing sounds.

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6
Q

How does auditory and visual processing differ in sensitivity to temporal and spatial information?

A
  • Hearing is highly sensitive to temporal changes (e.g., detecting speech sounds, melody, Morse code).
  • Vision is better at locating objects in space (Bertelson & Aschersleben, 1998).
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7
Q

What is a pure tone?

A

A sound with a sinusoidal waveform, meaning it has a smooth, repetitive oscillation of pressure over time.

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8
Q

What is the frequency range of human hearing?

A

The human auditory system detects frequencies from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz

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9
Q

How is loudness related to sound intensity?

A

Loudness is the perceived intensity of sound and is related to the amplitude of a wave, measured in decibels (dB).

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10
Q

How are pitch and loudness processed in the brain?

What did Stevens (1935) find about pitch perception?

A

Even though frequency and amplitude are independent physical properties, the brain processes pitch and loudness together, meaning loudness can influence pitch perception.

  • Low-frequency sounds appear lower when volume increases.
  • High-frequency sounds appear higher when volume increases.
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11
Q

What is the fundamental frequency (f0)?

A

The lowest frequency component of a complex sound, which typically determines the perceived pitch of a musical note.

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12
Q

What happens if the fundamental frequency is missing?

A

he pitch is still perceived as if the fundamental frequency were present, a phenomenon known as the missing fundamental effect.

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13
Q

What is pitch constancy?

A

The perception that two notes with different physical characteristics can still be heard as having the same pitch (e.g., a 220 Hz tone vs. a series at 440 Hz, 660 Hz, 880 Hz).

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14
Q

What is the function of the cochlea?

A

Converts sound waves in fluid into neural impulses using hair cells on the basilar membrane

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15
Q

What is the function of the basilar membrane?

A

Detects different sound frequencies based on mechanical properties.
- Contains hair cells that trigger neural activity when moved by sound waves

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16
Q

How does the basilar membrane respond to different frequencies?

A
  • The narrow, stiff end (near the oval window) responds to high-frequency sounds.
  • The wide, flexible end (near the center of the cochlea) responds to low-frequency sounds.
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17
Q

How is sound location processed differently from vision?

A

Unlike vision (where different retinal locations detect different light sources), the cochlea does not encode sound location directly. Sound localization relies on differences between signals in both ears.

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18
Q

What is timbre?

A

The perceptual quality of a sound that allows us to distinguish between different musical instruments or voices, even if they have the same pitch and loudness.

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19
Q

Sparse scanning

A

In fMRI, a short break in scanning to enable sounds to be presented in relative silence.

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20
Q

What is the primary auditory cortex?

A

The main cortical area that receives auditory input from the thalamus (medial geniculate nucleus).

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21
Q

What is the belt region?

A

A part of the secondary auditory cortex that receives many projections from the primary auditory cortex.

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22
Q

What is the parabelt region?

A

A part of the secondary auditory cortex that receives input from the belt region.

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23
Q

What is tonotopic organization?

A

The principle that sounds close in frequency are represented by spatially close neurons in the brain.

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24
Q

How many synapses are there in the auditory pathway from the ear to the brain?

A

There are four or five synapses, starting from the auditory nerve and ending at the primary auditory cortex (A1).

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25
What is the pathway from the ear to the auditory cortex?
1. Auditory nerve → 2. Cochlear nuclei (brainstem) → 3. Medial geniculate nucleus (thalamus) → 4. Primary auditory cortex (A1, core region).
26
Where is the primary auditory cortex (A1) located?
In Heschl’s gyrus in the temporal lobes.
27
What are the belt and parabelt regions?
Secondary auditory cortex regions that surround A1 and receive input from both A1 and the medial geniculate nucleus.
28
What happens if the primary auditory cortex is damaged?
It does not cause complete deafness, but it leads to problems in identifying and locating sounds (Musiek et al., 2007).
29
How does the number of neurons change along the auditory pathway?
- Cochlear nucleus: 90,000 neurons. - Medial geniculate nucleus: 500,000 neurons. - Auditory cortex: 100,000,000 neurons.
30
How is tonotopic organization seen in the auditory nerve?
- Neurons responding to high frequencies are located on the periphery. - Neurons responding to low frequencies are located centrally (Kiang et al., 1965)
31
How is tonotopic organization reflected in the auditory cortex?
- The central region of A1 responds to low frequencies. - The outer regions (on both sides) respond to higher frequencies (Formisano et al., 2003; Merzenich et al., 1973).
32
How does auditory processing vary depending on the stimulus and context?
Different brain regions are involved depending on: - The stimulus content (e.g., speech, music, environmental sounds). - The task or goal (e.g., understanding speech, identifying a speaker, locating a sound
33
What is the hierarchical pathway of auditory feature processing?
1. Core (A1, primary auditory cortex) – Processes simple sound features (pure tones). 2. Belt region – Processes broader frequency ranges. 3. Parabelt region – Processes more complex sounds (e.g., vocalizations)
34
What evidence suggests the existence of a “pitch region” in the auditory cortex?
Bendor & Wang (2005) found a pitch-selective region outside A1 that responds to perceived pitch rather than actual frequency (e.g., the missing fundamental phenomenon).
35
How do neurons in the core and belt regions differ in frequency selectivity?
- Core region neurons respond to narrowly defined frequencies (e.g., 200 Hz only). - Belt region neurons respond to broader frequency bands (e.g., 200–300 Hz).
36
How is auditory center-surround processing similar to vision?
- Visual center-surround cells respond to ON and OFF light stimuli. - Auditory neurons respond to ON and OFF frequency bands (Tian et al., 2013). - Example: A neuron may respond to 3–6 kHz ON and 6–9 kHz OFF.
37
How do neurons respond to complex auditory patterns like speech and vocalizations?
- Core region responds to pure tones. - Belt region responds to noise bands. - Parabelt region responds to vocalizations (Chevillet et al., 2011).
38
What factors, besides frequency, do auditory neurons respond to?
- Loudness levels. - Spatial location (where a sound is coming from).
39
What are the two specialized auditory pathways?
1️⃣ Ventral ("what") pathway – Identifies sound content (speech, music, object sounds). 2️⃣ Dorsal ("where") pathway – Processes sound location in space
40
What did Rauschecker & Tian (2000) find about auditory specialization?
- Anterior belt region → Responds to sound identity (e.g., monkey calls, speech). - Posterior belt region → More spatially selective (sound location).
41
How does the auditory dorsal pathway act as a "how" route?
- In humans, the dorsal stream also interacts with motor regions in the parietal and frontal cortex. - It helps with speech reproduction and action-related sounds.
42
What does Isenberg et al. (2012) suggest about the dorsal stream?
The dorsal pathway may split into separate "where" and "how" streams, rather than being a single dual-purpose stream.
43
What are the two key inter-aural differences used for sound localization?
1️⃣ Inter-aural time difference (ITD) – The ear closest to the sound hears it slightly earlier. 2️⃣ Inter-aural intensity difference (IID) – The ear farthest from the sound hears it less intensely due to the head's sound shadow.
44
How do the head and pinnae contribute to sound localization?
The pinnae (outer ear shape) distorts sound waves, helping determine sound location. - This effect is unique to each person’s ear shape.
45
What is the head-related transfer function (HRTF)?
- The brain learns how sound is distorted by an individual's own ears and head. - This internal model helps infer sound location.
46
What did Hunter et al. (2003) find about the planum temporale?
It responds more strongly to externalized sounds (outside the head) than to sounds perceived as internal (e.g., through headphones).
47
What advantage do pinna distortions provide over inter-aural differences?
- Inter-aural differences only give left–right (azimuthal) location. - Pinna distortions help determine both left–right & top–bottom (elevation) location (Batteau, 1967)
48
Planum temporale
A part of the auditory cortex (posterior to the primary auditory cortex) that integrates auditory information with non-auditory information, for example to enable sounds to be separated in space.
49
What is egocentric sound localization?
Locating sounds relative to the head's position, without considering the body or environment.
50
What is allocentric sound localization?
Determining the actual location of a sound source in the external world, independent of head position.
51
Why is head orientation important for accurate sound localization?
A sound 10° to the left of the head may actually be in front if the head is turned 10° to the right. Body posture and head tilt must be factored in.
52
What system provides top-down influence on auditory processing?
The motor and proprioceptive system sends top-down information about head/body position to the auditory system, refining sound localization.
53
What is mismatch negativity (MMN)?
An ERP component that occurs when a sound deviates from a previously heard pattern (Näätänen et al., 1978).
54
When does MMN occur? EEG
100–200 ms after the onset of a deviant sound.
55
What is an example of MMN in pitch detection?
If a repeated tone sequence (A-A-A-A) suddenly changes (A-A-A-B), where B has a different pitch, MMN is triggered.
56
Why is MMN considered a low-level process?
- MMN occurs without conscious attention. - It is found in comatose patients before waking (Kane et al., 1993). - It occurs even when sounds are played to an unattended ear (Alho et al., 1994)
57
Why is auditory memory important?
Unlike visual objects, auditory objects (e.g., words, melodies) disappear after being heard, requiring sensory memory to integrate sounds over brief time intervals (a few seconds).
58
What is auditory stream segregation?
The process of separating complex auditory scenes (e.g., cocktail party, orchestral music) into distinct streams or objects based on pitch, melody, instrumentation, or spatial location.
59
What model of auditory memory is widely accepted
Näätänen et al. (2001) proposed that auditory memory's primary function is early stream segregation.
60
Where is spatial information first processed?
Spatial cues are present in early auditory responses, but are further refined by the dorsal route leading to the parietal cortex.
61
What is the role of the dorsal auditory route?
Integrates auditory information with non-auditory inputs (e.g., head movement, vision) to refine spatial processing.
62
What is the role of the ventral auditory route?
processes the content of sounds, including vocalizations and, in humans, is specialized for speech comprehension
63
What are the key features of music perception?
Pitch, rhythm, timbre, consonance/dissonance.
64
What is the hemispheric specialization for music?
The left hemisphere is specialized for timing (rhythm), while the right hemisphere is specialized for pitch (melody).
65
What is amusia?
A music-specific auditory agnosia, where a person struggles to perceive or produce music despite normal hearing.
66
How can memory for tunes be impaired? Does this impair speech recognition?
Some patients with bilateral temporal lobe damage can’t recognize familiar melodies but can still recognize speech and environmental sounds.
67
How is musical memory linked to semantic and episodic memory?
Semantic memory (e.g., stored knowledge of familiar tunes) is more important than episodic memory (recently learned tunes).
68
What brain region is linked to memory for familiar tunes?
Right anterior temporal lobes (damage here is associated with memory loss for melodies).
69
What is congenital amusia?
A condition affecting 4% of the population, characterized by impaired pitch perception without other cognitive impairments.
70
How does the brain process musical syntax
Musical syntax violations activate inferior frontal regions, including Broca’s area.
71
What is timbre?
The perceptual quality of a sound that enables us to distinguish between different musical instruments.
72
What brain region is critical for timbre perception?
The right temporal lobe (damage here can selectively impair timbre perception).
73
How does music evoke emotions?
Through tempo, key (major = happy, minor = sad), dissonance (tension), and surprise elements
74
What brain regions process emotional responses to music?
Limbic system (amygdala, nucleus accumbens, orbitofrontal cortex)—similar to responses to food, sex, and drugs
75
What is the function of music from an evolutionary perspective?
Theories include: mate attraction (Darwin), social bonding (Huron), and a precursor to language (Mithen).
76
What is Steven Pinker’s argument against an evolutionary function of music?
He suggests music is "auditory cheesecake"—a byproduct of brain functions designed for other purposes, like language
77
How does music relate to speech perception
There are shared processing mechanisms—musical pitch relates to prosody (intonation, emphasis, rhythm in speech). The 12-tone musical scale may reflect natural patterns of vowel sounds in human speech.
78
What is musical syntax?
The set of rules governing which notes follow each other, similar to grammatical rules in language.
79
What happens when musical syntax is disrupted?
Brain activation in Broca’s area and the anterior superior temporal regions suggests an overlap with language processing.
80
What did early philosophers like Aristoxenus and Plato believe about music?
Aristoxenus viewed music as an extension of speech, while Plato believed music influenced the soul and should be regulated.
81
How does birdsong differ from human music?
Birdsong is primarily used for communication (e.g., territory marking, mating) and lacks the hierarchical structure of human music.
82
What are some early developmental milestones in music perception?
Infants prefer consonance over dissonance, can detect melodic contour by a few months old, and recognize phrase boundaries in music.
83
What is the Mozart Effect?
The claim that listening to Mozart temporarily enhances spatial reasoning, though research suggests this is due to mood/arousal rather than a direct cognitive benefit.
84
What are the neural differences in individuals with congenital amusia?
They have reduced white and gray matter density in the right auditory cortex and inferior frontal gyrus.
85
How does music activate the brain’s reward system?
Anticipation and resolution of musical events engage the nucleus accumbens and dopamine pathways, sometimes producing "chills."
86
What is the Shared Syntactic Integration Resource Hypothesis (SSIRH)?
It proposes that music and language share neural resources for processing syntax, particularly in the inferior frontal gyrus
87
Why can humans synchronize to a beat, but chimps cannot?
Human auditory-motor integration is enhanced by connections between the auditory cortex, basal ganglia, and motor system, which chimps lack.
88
What is the role of the basal ganglia in rhythm perception?
It helps maintain beat perception and coordination with movement.
89
How does musical expertise affect brain structure?
Musicians show differences in the planum temporale (linked to auditory processing) and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (linked to working memory and planning).
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yr 2 sem 2 (39 decks)

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