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yr 2 sem 2 > cogneuro 7-8- remembering brain > Flashcards

cogneuro 7-8- remembering brain Flashcards

1
Q

why do function and structure not match exactly

A

a structure can participate in multiple functions

a function may rely on multiple structures

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2
Q

comprehensive definition of episodic memory

A

the result of associative learning.
the what, where, when and who of an episode (in its context) are associated and bound together.
they can be retrieved and reexperienced as a single memory

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3
Q

The MTL system consists of

A

(medial temporal lobe)
- Hippocampus
- Entorhinal cortex
- Perirhinal cortex
- parahippocampal cortex

(last 3 sometimes referred to as parahippocampal gyrus)

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4
Q

parahippocampal gyrus consists of

A
  • Entorhinal cortex
  • perirhinal cortex
  • parahippocampal cortex
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5
Q

the hippocampus is divided into which areas

A
  • Dentate gyrus
  • CA (Cornu Ammonis) subfields = CA1, CA2, CA3, CA4)
  • Subiculum
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6
Q

which cornu Ammonis subfields have been studied more systematically

and what are they seperated based on

A

separated based on cell type.

CA1 and CA3 (bc they are bigger)

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7
Q

How does info flow within the hippocampus

A

from cortical regions of MTL (via Entorhinal cortex) into various subfields of hippocampus.

info also going away from Entorhinal cortex, creating a loop on info processing

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8
Q

information flow in the MTL is beleived to be organised in what structure

A

hierarchical structure

From rest of brain to Perirhinal cortex and parahippocampal cortex.
Then passes onto Entorhinal cortex .
Then to diff subregions of hippocampus.

After processing, hippocampal subfields then passes partly to other regions of MTL and to Perirhinal cortex.

A loop of info processing.
(this does not mean that they don’t have a processing role, they should do) and do not work in isolation. There is also an extended MTL system.

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9
Q

What is the alternative to the short-term memory store model?

A

working memory is the temporary activation of long-term memory representations by a pre-frontal / executive system

This is the most popular in neuroscience currently

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10
Q

What are advantages of the alternative working memory mode

A

it is simpler and account for memories of smell and touch, not just those assumed to be STM stores

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11
Q

Working memory

A

A system for the temporary storage and manipulation of information.

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12
Q

What cognitive ability is phonological STM linked to?

And what does this suggest

A

Learning new phonological long-term memories, especially new words.

suggests STM is linked to LTM for phonological

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13
Q

What alternative did Cowan (2001) propose to Miller’s chunk theory?

A

chunking reflects long-term memory use to recode information

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14
Q

What components make up the phonological loop according to Baddeley?

A

A phonological store and a subvocal rehearsal mechanism

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15
Q

What does the rehearsal mechanism in the phonological loop do?

A

Refreshes memory items by mentally “saying” them (subvocal articulation).

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16
Q

what does the neural model of the phonological loop suggest?

A

It reflects reciprocal activation between speech perception and production processes (Buchsbaum & D’Esposito, 2008)

A neural loop between hearing and speaking systems in the brain that supports holding verbal information in mind — like mentally rehearsing a phone number

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17
Q

What alternative view does Norris (2017) propose about phonological STM?

A

That a separate phonological short-term store is necessary, especially for repeating made-up words and tracking repeated items.

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18
Q

What is the Corsi blocks task used to assess?

A

Visuo-spatial short-term memory by reproducing a sequence of tapped blocks

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19
Q

What is the typical capacity in the Corsi blocks task?

A

Around 5 items (Della Sala et al., 1999).

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20
Q

what did Luck & Vogel (1997) find about visual STM capacity?

A

Memory is limited to about four visual objects, not features

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21
Q

How does visual STM for feature conjunctions (e.g., color + orientation) perform?

A

Performance remains stable; capacity reflects number of objects, not features.

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22
Q

What do fMRI studies (e.g., Ranganath et al., 2004) show about visual STM?

(which area is activated)

A

Sustained activity occurs in ventral stream areas specialized for perceiving the memorized stimuli (e.g., faces, places).

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23
Q

What does the delayed paired-associates task reveal? fMRI studies (e.g., Ranganath et al., 2004)

suggesting…

A

when pair a face to a place (both with diff activity in fMRI studies) During delay, brain activity reflects the recalled item, not the one just seen—evidence for memory-based activation.

i.e. it used the memory of the old recalled item (memory)

STM may involve temporary activation of LTM representations, not entirely separate systems.
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24
Q

What is one challenge for models that treat working memory as temporary activation of long-term memory?

A

Explaining why working memory has a limited capacity if long-term memory has large capacity

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25
how do these temporary LTM activation models explain capacity limits?
Limits arise from interference between active items — the more items activated, the more confusion or reduced precision.
26
What brain areas help maintain visual STM?
Visual areas (hold content), and frontal/parietal areas (select and maintain it); especially the intraparietal sulcus
27
What disrupts visual STM?
Distractions during the memory delay break the functional connectivity of the memory network, impairing STM performance
28
How does priming appear in the brain?
As reduced neural activity on the second exposure, indicating more efficient processing.
29
How is memory performance related to neural activity in priming?
Better performance is linked to less activity, possibly due to increased neural precision or synchrony.
30
What is anterograde amnesia?
A memory impairment in learning new information after the onset of brain damage.
31
What is retrograde amnesia?
A memory impairment in recalling events that occurred before the brain damage.
32
What memory impairments did patient HM show?
Severe anterograde amnesia and retrograde amnesia extending back 11 years before surgery.
33
What is a common cause of amnesia aside from neurosurgery?
Stroke, head injury, viral infections (e.g., herpes simplex encephalitis), and Alzheimer’s disease
34
Which type of long-term memory is most consistently impaired in amnesia
Episodic memory.
35
What test assesses recall and recognition in amnesic patients?
The Wechsler Memory Scale.
36
How is retrograde autobiographical memory assessed in amnesic patients?
The Autobiographical Memory Interview.
37
What aspect of memory is often spared in amnesia?
Short-term memory (e.g., digit span tasks).
38
What kind of information might show STM impairments in amnesia?
The 3D layout of large-scale spatial scenes.
39
What kind of memory is spared in amnesia when learning motor tasks?
Procedural memory.
40
How did amnesic patients perform on implicit word fragment tasks?
They performed normally, showing priming effects.
41
How did amnesic patients perform on explicit memory tests using the same words?
They were impaired and did not recall the words well.
42
Which brain regions are thought to support priming in word tasks?
Language areas (e.g., Broca’s area) and the visual ventral stream.
43
Why is the implicit word task considered independent of the hippocampus?
Because it relies on regions spared in amnesia and does not require conscious recall
44
What is one reason semantic memory may appear preserved in amnesia?
Much of it is acquired early in life and may be resistant to retrograde memory loss. (because earlier memories are usually spared in amnesics)
45
How do amnesic patients perform on recently acquired semantic facts (e.g., recent celebrities)?
They show impairments, indicating that newer semantic memories are more vulnerable.
46
Can amnesic patients learn new semantic knowledge?
Sometimes, but often more slowly and not consistently across patients.
47
What bio factor can influence whether new semantic learning occurs in amnesia?
Whether tissue surrounding the hippocampus (e.g., entorhinal cortex) is intact.
48
What is consolidation in the context of memory?
The process of converting temporary brain activity into permanent structural changes.
49
How does the consolidation theory explain retrograde amnesia?
Memories not yet fully consolidated are lost after hippocampal damage.
50
What is an alternative to the consolidation theory in explaining memory loss in amnesia?
The hippocampus may also play a permanent role in storing Contextual cues, including spatial and temporal information
51
What is long-term potentiation (LTP)?
An increase in the long-term responsiveness of a postsynaptic neuron in response to stimulation of a presynaptic neuron
52
Why might episodic memories be especially vulnerable in amnesia? compared to semantic
Because they contain rich contextual details that are linked by medial temporal lobe structures like the hippocampus. They may initially be context dependent but become less so with consolidation, and so can be learned through repetition which does not rely in hippocampus
53
What happens during the initial formation of memories at the synaptic level
There is an increased probability that a postsynaptic neuron will fire in response to presynaptic neurotransmitter release.
54
What is long-term potentiation (LTP)?
A lasting increase in synaptic strength following high-frequency stimulation of a presynaptic neuron.
55
What two phases follow LTP induction?
Rapid modification of existing synaptic proteins and synthesis of new proteins.
56
What is synaptic consolidation?
A rapid process (within ~1 hour) where LTP is stabilized via protein synthesis.
57
What are Dudai’s two types of consolidation?
1) Fast synaptic consolidation (LTP-based, widespread), 2) System consolidation (slower, hippocampus-dependent).
58
How long might system consolidation take in humans?
Possibly several years.
59
What is Ribot’s law?
The principle that older memories are more likely to be preserved in retrograde amnesia than recent ones.
60
What explanation does consolidation theory offer for Ribot’s law?
Older memories are more consolidated and less dependent on the hippocampus.
61
What is long-term potentiation (LTP)?
An increase in long-term responsiveness of a postsynaptic neuron after brief high-frequency stimulation of a presynaptic neuron.
62
What are the two types of consolidation described by Dudai (2004)?
Fast synaptic consolidation (LTP-based) and slower system consolidation (hippocampus-related).
63
What is catastrophic interference in memory models?
The idea that adding new information directly to cortical memory systems could overwrite or distort old information
64
What does the multiple-trace theory propose about the hippocampus?
It plays a permanent role in episodic memory; older memories are more resistant due to multiple traces created through retrieval.
65
What kind of memories are thought to always rely on the hippocampus? (multiple trace)
Context-rich, episodic memories.
66
What kind of memories become less dependent on the hippocampus over time? (multiple trace theory)
Schematic or semantic memories.
67
what brain region supports schematic, semantic-like memory in the multiple-trace theory?
The entorhinal cortex.
68
What are place cells?
Neurons in the hippocampus that respond to specific locations in an environment (allocentric space).
69
What are grid cells and where are they found?
Cells in the entorhinal cortex that fire at multiple locations in a grid-like pattern, thought to support spatial navigation.
70
How do the left and right hippocampus differ in function?
Right: spatial/contextual memory; Left: semantic/contextual details (e.g., who, what, when).
71
What is the role of the entorhinal cortex in memory consolidation? mTt
Acts as an interface between hippocampus and neocortex; supports slow consolidation and schematic similarity comparisons.
72
What is the cognitive map theory?
The theory that the hippocampus encodes allocentric maps of environments to aid in spatial navigation.
73
How do hippocampal theories differ in system consolidation models?
standard theory: hippocampus has a time-limited role. Multiple-trace/trace transformation theory: hippocampus supports contextual memory permanently
74
What is the key difference between episodic and semantic memory in terms of hippocampal dependence?
Episodic memory retains dependence on the hippocampus for detailed context; semantic memory can shift to neocortical regions over time.
75
What does lesion evidence from semantic dementia suggest about the neocortex's role in memory?
Anterior temporal lobe lesions lead to loss of remote semantic memory, supporting the idea that semantic storage resides in the neocortex.
76
What are schematic memories and how are they stored?
Generalized, context-free memories stored in neocortical regions like the entorhinal cortex; may arise from frequently retrieved or repeated episodic events.
77
What are the two mechanisms of recognition memory proposed by Mandler (1980)?
Familiarity (context-free) and recollection (context-rich).
78
what brain regions are linked to recollection and familiarity?
Recollection → hippocampus; Familiarity → perirhinal cortex.
79
What does Eichenbaum’s model say about MTL contributions to memory
Perirhinal → item info; Parahippocampal → context; Hippocampus → binds items in context.
80
What is the levels-of-processing account of memory?
Information processed semantically is more likely to be remembered than perceptual processing.
81
What neural activity predicts later remembering vs forgetting?
Greater activity in left parahippocampal and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex at encoding.
82
What is retrieval-induced forgetting?
Remembering one item actively inhibits similar competing items (Anderson et al., 1994).
83
What is directed forgetting?
Intentionally trying to forget items leads to worse recall of those items
84
Which brain areas are involved in voluntary forgetting?
Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex during suppression; hippocampus during remembering.
85
What mechanism may mediate frontal-hippocampal forgetting interactions
anterior cingulate cortex may activate inhibitory neurons in the entorhinal cortex
86
What are the two broad explanations for forgetting already-encoded items?
Passive trace decay and active interference/inhibition.
87
What is the difference between strategic and automatic forgetting?
trategic forgetting involves voluntary control (e.g., directed forgetting), while automatic forgetting arises from rehearsal/interference.
88
What is source monitoring?
The process by which retrieved memories are attributed to their original context (e.g., seen vs. imagined).
89
What brain regions are involved in source recognition?
Hippocampus and parahippocampal cortex.
90
What brain region is involved in item recognition?
Perirhinal cortex.
91
How do prefrontal lesions affect memory?
They impair spatial and temporal source memory despite intact item recognition.
92
What do parietal lobe lesions affect in memory?
they reduce confidence in memory judgments but do not impair source monitoring.
93
what is the role of the orbitofrontal cortex in memory
Specialized for encoding temporal context; damage affects temporal source monitoring
94
What is confabulation?
a false and sometimes self-contradictory memory without intention to lie.
95
What metaphor describes prefrontal cortex's role in memory?
Working with memory"—involves active encoding and retrieval strategies.
96
What is constructive memory?
Remembering based on inference and reconstruction using current knowledge.
97
What is a false memory?
A memory that is inaccurate but accepted as real by the person remembering.
98
Why might amnesics be less prone to false memories?
Because they cannot store the misleading information that causes the distortion.
99
What is the ventrolateral PFC linked to
Long-term memory encoding and selection within working memory.
100
What is the dorsolateral PFC linked to?
Manipulating (e.g., ordering) information in working memory and long-term encoding.
101
What is the dorsolateral PFC's role in retrieval
Monitoring retrieved information, especially under uncertainty.
102
What is an experiential state in memory?
The subjective feeling of knowing (familiarity) vs. remembering (recollection).
103
How can perceptual distinctiveness help memory?
It aids source monitoring by making imagined vs. seen content easier to distinguish.
104
What is the constructive memory approach?
Remembering is based on current knowledge used to infer past events.
105
What neural pattern supports constructive memory?
Reactivation of stored features linked to real events, observed in hippocampal activity.
106
What role do schemas play in memory?
They guide inferences that contribute to both accurate and false memories.
107
Which side of the hippocampus is associated with spatial context?
right
108
Which region is involved in memory confidence judgments?
Right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.
109
What is Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)?
A non-invasive method that uses magnetic pulses to create a transient "virtual lesion" by disrupting neural activity in specific brain areas.
110
What does TMS allow researchers to test?
Causality between brain regions and cognitive/behavioral functions.
111
How does tDCS differ from tACS?
tDCS modulates excitability (anodal = enhance, cathodal = inhibit); tACS entrains brain rhythms using specific oscillation frequencies.
112
How does TMS demonstrate individual differences in language lateralization
TMS effects on language tasks depend on whether a person is left- or right-lateralized for language
113

yr 2 sem 2 (35 decks)

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