Clinical Pathology Flashcards
Prevailing cause of Chyluria
Wuchereria bancrofti (filariasis)
Main determinant of urine volume
Water intake
Two most commonly utilized testing modalities for indirect assessment of Bacteriuria and Leukocyturia
Reagent strip nitrite (bacteriuria) and Leukocyte esterase (leukocyturia)
Gold standard for detecting bacteriuria
Bacteriologic culture
Best reserved and most useful for those samples with abnormal dipstick results
Examination of the urine sediment
Most frequent epithelial cells seen in normal urine and the least significant
Squamous epithelial cells
Most common form of pleural effusion in the newborn
idiopathic congenital chylothorax
Most useful single marker for adenocarcinoma
CEA
Most common etiologic agent of pericardial effusions
Enterovirus
Most reliable method to differentiate peritoneal transudates from exudates
serum-ascites albumin gradient
Preferred method for the diagnosis of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis
Ascitic fluid total neutrophil count
Most common association of eosinophilia in a peritoneal fluid
Chronic inflammatory process associated with chronic peritoneal dialysis
Most clinically significant antibodies detected during antibody screening
IgG
Most important function of polyspecific AHG
detection of IgG antibodies
Gold standard of measuring total body water
Tritiated water or Deuterium oxide
Most abundant glycosaminoglycan in the extracellular space
Hyaluronic acid
Main solutes in the Extracellular fluid (3)
Na, Cl, and HCO3
Main solutes in the Intracellular fluid (Cell) (4)
-K,
-Mg,
-PO4, and
-Protein
Main Phosphate in RBC
2,3-DPG
Main Phosphates in muscle (2)
ATP and Creatinine Phosphate
Main determinant of specific gravity of plasma
Protein
Chief determinant of how much ECF is retained
Effective vascular volume
Most important natriuretic peptide hormone for the renal excretion of sodium
Urodilatin
Main regulator of ADH secretion
Osmolality
Main determinant of the extracellular volume
Salt content of the body
Main source of energy for sodium reabsorption at all nephron segments
Basolateral Na-K ATPase
Best indicator of anemia
Low RBC count or number of RBC per volume of whole blood
Excellent indicator of hemolytic anemia
Elevated carbon monoxide levels in normocytic, normochromic anemia
Most common cause of macrocytic anemia
Nutritional deficiency such as Vitamin B12 and/or Folate
Most common cause of an elevated WBC
Infection
Definitive diagnosis of Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia
demonstration of Philadelphia chromosome (i.e. the BCR/c-abl translocation between Chr 9 and 22 by either cytogenetics or molecular techniques)
Major cause of elevated PT and aPTT
Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)
Chief counter ion for sodium
Chloride
Four analytes that aid in the diagnosis of renal disease
BUN, Creatinine, Calcium, and Phosphate
Most abundant cation in the body
Calcium
Best measure of hypocalcemia, normocalcemia, or hypercalcemia
serum levels of ionized calcium
Three blood gas determinants interdependent by the Henderson-Hasselbach equation
PCO2, pH, and bicarbonate
Most common cause of metabolic alkalosis
Vomiting
hallmark of Pulmonary embolus
marked drop in the PO2
Most accurate method of diagnosing and monitoring treatment of diabetes mellitus
measurement of glycosylated hemoglobin levels (HgbA1C)
Only tissue in the body that can metabolize ammonia
Liver
It is the measurement of the reduction in light transmission caused by particle formation
Turbidimetry
This is the term used for detecting light that is scattered at various angles; wherein scattered light yields a small signal that must be amplified
Nephelometry
This is the term used to measure the concentration of a substance by measuring the change of the angle of light as it passes from one medium to another of different concentrations
Refractometry
antibody typically associated with Wegener’s granulomatosis
c-ANCA
most important test for diagnosing systemic necrotizing vasculitis
Tissue biopsy
third copy of the CCF (Custody and Control Form) goes to the
confirmatory laboratory
Positive drug test records of a drug testing facility are stored for how long?
stored indefinitely
a form of cytapheresis that removes the patient’s red blood cells and replaces them with allogeneic red blood cells
Red cell exchange (RCE) or therapeutic erythrocytapheresis
Red cell exchange (RCE) or therapeutic erythrocytapheresis is most commonly used in the treatment of
sickle cell disease
Requirements of allogeneic donor qualification for blood pressure
-<180 mm Hg systolic
-<100 mm Hg diastolic
Conventionally, what is the unit used to express renal clearance
mL/minute
Flocculation procedures differ from latex agglutination procedures because:
Soluble antigen reacts with antibody
Protein can be separated into _____ fractions by use of serum electrophoresis
Five (5)
In measuring lipids, how long should you advise the patient to fast before venipuncture?
12 hours
The circulating half life of N-Brain natriuretic peptide is:
60-120 min.
staining procedure utilized in detecting the presence of telomeres of chromosomes. This special stain produces an opposite banding pattern in relation to the routinely used stain.
R-banding
R stands for reverse.
HPV-related cervical carcinogenesis is brought about primarily by inactivation of tumor suppressor proteins, specifically pRB and p53. Which gene(s) are responsible for these inactivation?
E6 and E7
-E6 inactivates p53
-E7 inactivates pRB
After fecal DNA extraction, the purified DNA products are added to the PCR mastermix containing several primers, with the aim of detecting a specific etiologic agent (e.g. E. coli, Shigella spp., Salmonella spp., Vibrio spp., etc.). Which specific test best describes the above procedure?
Multiplex PCR
-A single PCR step with multiple primers used
The most commonly used method to determine the relatedness of two or more bacterial strains
pulse-field gel electrophoresis
Most common cause of agranulocytosis
Drug-Induced
Serious infection is very likely once neutrphil count falls below _ per cc
500
Heparin inhibits the clotting of blood by neutralizing the effect of
Thrombin
The substance active in splitting fibrin, fibrinogen and fragments is
Plasmin
In cerebrospinal fluid examination, microbiologic examination is usually done in which tube
Tube 2
In the grading of sperm motility, what grade do you assign for sperm cells with slow forward progression and noticeable lateral movement?
Grade 2
In mycology, what does dimorphic mean?
displaying two morphologic types:
-one environmental (mould) and
-one in vivo (yeast)
in spectrophotometry, the device that allows for a narrow band of wavelength is
Monochromator
This parameter of a diagnostic test will vary with the prevalence of a disease in a population
Accuracy
National Blood Service Act of 1994
RA 7719
Higher Education Act of 1994
RA 7722
Philippine AIDS Prevention and Control Act of 1998
RA 8504
PRC Modernization Act of 2000
RA 8981
It is the removal of microorganisms to a certain level as not to be able to infect humans and cause disease (WHO)
Decontamination
eliminates nearly all recognized pathogenic microorganisms but not necessarily all microbial forms (e.g., bacterial spores) on inanimate objects
Disinfection
Free of microorganisms
Sterilization
reduce the level of microbial contamination so that infection transmission is eliminated
Decontamination
consists of evaluation of method performance by comparison of results versus those of other laboratories for the same samples
Proficiency testing
Definition of Oliguria in adults
<400 mL/day
A negative reagent strip test but a positive Clintest result in can be interpreted as:
Presence of non-glucose reducing sugars
This test for fetal lung maturity uses increasing amount of 95% ethanol wherein fetal lung maturity index is seen in highest concentration of ethanol that supports ring of foam after shaking
Foam stability test or Shake test
Parasite associated with Vitamin B12 deficiency
Diphyllobotrium latum
produce small yeast-like cells often found in macrophages (yeast form) and tuberculate macroconidia for its mold form
Histoplasma capsulatum
produce barrel-shaped arthroconidia (mold form) and thick-walled spherules with endospores (yeast form)
Coccidioides immitis
produce thick walled yeasts, with multiple budding yeast cells with very narrow necks (like a mariner’s wheel) and hyphae with intercalary and terminal chlamydoconidia
Paracoccidioides brasiliensis
Mold form appear like a lollipop (conidia on top of a conidiophore)
Blastomyces dermatitidis
a rickettsial infection that is primarily transmitted by the larval form of Leptotrombidium species (chiggers)
Scrub typhus
Causative agent of Scrub typhus
Orientia tsutsugamushi
Causative agent of Epidemic typhus
Rickettsia prowazekii
Causative agent of Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever
Rickettsia rickettsii
Causative agent of Human monocytotropic ehrlichiosis
Ehrlichia chafeensis
Causative agent of Murine typhus
Rickettsia typhi
Epidemic typhus is transmitted by:
Body louse (Pediculus humanus var. corporis)
RMSF is transmitted by
Ixodidae ticks (tick borned disease)
Human monocytotropic ehrlichiosis is transmitted by:
Tick bite
Murine typhus is transmitted by
Flea bite (Xenopsylla cheopis)
recommended method for the detection of non-LGV C. trachomatis infection
in urogenital specimens
Nucleic acid amplification test (NAAT)
recommended for diagnosis of suspected sexual assault or abuse in boys or extragenital sites in girls
Cell culture
Recommended for diagnosis of ocular chlamydial infection
Direct fluorescent antibody (DFA)
most commonly used therapeutic target that can be interrogated by flow cytometry in acute myeloid leukemia
CD33
allows for the screening of several different mutations at one time by putting probes specific for different mutations on the membrane and then hybridizing a labeled patient DNA sample to the membrane
Reverse dot blot
The fluorescent dye that exhibits the greatest sensitivity for quantization of DNA is
SYBR Green
This determines the amount of current and the movement of the proteins for a fixed voltage in electrophoresis
Ionic strength of the buffer
defined electrophoretically as the fraction that migrates in a position faster than albumin toward the anode
Prealbumin
The single most abundant protein in normal plasma, usually constituting up to two- thirds of total plasma protein
Albumin
Liver enzyme that is more specific for detecting liver disease in nonalcoholic, asymptomatic patients
Alanine aminotransferase (ALT) / Serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase (SGPT)
Liver enzyme that is most often used for monitoring therapy with potentially hepatotoxic drugs
Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) / Serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT)
the product usually measured to provide the result in assays for AST and ALT
NADH
In this method, the immunoreaction and/or systemic reaction is carried out in one solution, which includes the reagent for signal development of enzyme
Homogeneous enzyme immunoassay
gold standard in diagnosis of Syphilis, and should be positive, even after treatment
FTA-ABS
a type of precipitation immunoassay that allows visualization of whether two antigens are identical, not identical or partially identical
Ouchterlony double diffusion testing
a chronic idiopathic condition found predominantly in older patients presenting with acrocyanosis and Reynaud Phenomenon
Idiopathic Cold Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia
According to the US-FDA Advisory Panel consensus, the approved shelf life of additive solutions (Adsol, Nutricel, Optisol) is:
42 days
Characterized by defective red cell membrane proteins spectrin and ankyrin
Hereditary Spherocytosis
Hereditary spherocytosis on PBS reveal red cells that are spherical which lack central pallor, and they show increased osmotic fragility when placed in?
Hypotonic salt solutions
Most common cause of anemia in hospitalized patients
Anemia of chronic disease
This anemia is characterized by high levels of hepcidin, responsible for blocking the transfer of iron to erythroid precursors
Anemia of chronic disease
In β-thalassemia, an individual who inherits one abnormal allele (out of two) has this condition:
β-thalassemia minor
Vitamins (2) that can falsely lower HbA1c levels by inhibiting glycosylation
Vitamins C and E
most common mutation of the GALT gene
Q188R mutation on chromosome 9
This colligative property of a solution is increased/elevated as its osmolality is increased
Boiling point
This analytic technique in electrochemistry measures the quantity of electricity needed to convert an analyte to a different oxidation state
Coulometry
This plastic is commonly used in the laboratory, is chemically resistant, and can be autoclaved
Polypropylene
Acute transfusion reaction is defined as a reaction in which signs and symptoms present within ____ hours of a transfusion
24 hrs
In immune mediated acute hemolytic reaction, a small volume of incompatible blood, as little as _____, can cause hemolysis
10 mL
generally used in comparison of data between two variables by calculating the straight line fit
Linear regression
Linear regression is calculated using what equation
y = a + bx
where:
a - intercept
b - slope
These are the vertical distance between the data points and the best fit line
Residuals
This is used to describe the relationship between the two methods
Correlation coefficient (r)
This procedure determines the total allowable error in a specific test that represents the probability of providing an erroneous result which can lead to risk or harm of the patient
Sigma metric
This is used for method evaluation between laboratories
Proficiency testing or External Quality Assessment
Rules that evaluate quality control results as acceptable or not
Westgard rules
Most optimal pH to use in thin smears for the visualization of cytoplasmic inclusions in malarial species
pH 7.0-7.2
Most straightforward diagnostic method used when acute rubella (German measles) is suspected in a pregnant woman
assay of maternal serum for rubella IgM by EIA or IFA
Pigmented conidia, spores, or hyphae due to the presence of melanin
Phaeoid or Dematiaceous
Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT), also called heparin- induced thrombocytopenia with thrombosis, is an adverse effect of treatment with
Unfractionated heparin
This oncogenic protein has been identified in more than 90% of pancreatic cancers and therefore is considered a major causative factor in this disease
ras-p21
Non-branching non-spore-forming gram positive intracellular rod, β hemolytic on Blood agar plate, and shows tumbling motility at room temperature
Listeria monocytogenes
Gene responsible for Penicillin resistance among community-acquired MRSA
mecA gene
Optical interferences caused by lipemia may be eliminated by
Ultracentrifugation
Decreased water content in a specimen may be erroneously reported as having a decreased amount of analyte
Solvent exclusion effect
most important ion in a single enzyme reverse transcriptase PCR that uses Thermus thermophilus DNA polymerase
Manganese
In this method, the immunoreaction includes washing steps for separation, and an additional reagent is added for the enzyme reaction
Heterogeneous enzyme immunoassay
In radioimmunoassay, which emissions are measured?
Gamma rays and Beta rays
Isolated elevations in Alkaline Phosphatase and LDH are most compatible with:
Space occupying lesions in the Liver
Most common method for comparison of a continuous variable between groups
Student t-Test
This pear-shaped parasite has a spiral groove on its ventral surface as well as stiff, rotary movement
Chilomastix mesnili
Male/Female:
A hookworm with a fan-shaped copulatory bursa at its posterior end
Male
a medium used to test aerotolerance of bacteria
Thioglycollate broth
Recommended coagulant for coagulation tests
Sodium Citrate 3.2%
-CD5 positive
-dim CD20 and surface immunoglobulin
-CD23 positive
CLL
The normal size of erythrocytes usually falls within this range
6-8 um
Particle found within the cytoplasm of red cells which is actually smooth, round remnants of nuclear chromatin, usually seen in megaloblastic anaemia, haemolytic anaemia, and in post-splenectomy patients
Howell-Jolly Body
irregularly spiculated red cells in which the ends of the spicules are bulbous and rounded and are usually seen in abetalipoproteinemia and in certain cases of liver disease
Acanthocytes
method susceptible to the solvent displacing effect that results in falsely decreased electrolyte values
Indirect ion-selective electrodes
The buffer pH most effective at allowing amphoteric protein to migrate toward the cathode in an electrophoretic system
pH 4.5
Principle of the PO2 electrode
Amperometry
Most commonly used method for clinical and epidemiologic measurement of plasma triglycerides
Hydrolysis
An enzyme present in skeletal but not in cardiac muscle, hence it can serve as a sort of “negative” cardiac marker. It is released from damaged muscle at a fairly fixed ratio to myoglobin
Carbonic anhydrase III
Clinical Laboratory Law
RA 4688
Sanitation Code of the Philippines
PD 856
Labor Code
PD 442
It consists of the detailed, day-to-day operations needed to meet the immediate needs of the laboratory
Tactical Planning
It can be defined as
1) deciding on the objectives of the organization and the need to modify existing objectives if appropriate;
2) allocating resources to attain these objectives; and 3) establishing policies that govern the acquisition, use, and disposition of these resources
Strategic Planning
most commonly defined as the range of values into which 95% of nondiseased individuals will fall; this definition implies that 5% of nondiseased individuals can have laboratory results outside the reference range
Reference intervals
the probability of a positive result in a person with the disease (true-positive rate).
Sensitivity
Confirmatory tests require high ___ to be certain of the diagnosis
High SPECIFICITY
Three main statistical measures of accuracy
Mean - Average
Median - Middle value
Mode - Most common value
The ability to measure only the substance of interest is also known as:
Specificity
Amount of protein being excreted in heavy proteinuria
> 4 g/day
Used as a confirmatory test for identifying a sugar other than glucose in the urine
Thin layer chromatography
Only pathogenic microfilariae with no sheath
Onchocerca volvulus
Only cestode that produces operculated eggs
Diphyllobotrium latum
most common cause of an abnormality in hemostasis
Quantitative abnormality in platelets
most common cause of excessive or abnormal bleeding
Thrombocytopenia
Platelet abnormality characterised by abnormal aggregation to ADP, epinephrine and collagen, but normal aggregation with ristocetin
Glanzmann thrombasthenia
The principle of this instrument relies on the injection of a monodisperse suspension of particles into the center of a flowing stream of fluid that passes through a small quartz capillary tube at a constant velocity
Flow cytometry
The main function of the hexose monophosphate shunt in the erythrocyte is to
Provide reduced glutathione to prevent oxidation of hemoglobin
Denatured hemoglobin inclusions that are readily removed by the spleen
Heinz bodies
This is an autosomal dominant caused by expansion of a (CTG)n repeat in the 3′ untranslated region of the myotonin protein kinase gene on chromosome 19q13.3
Myotonic dystrophy
This is an autosomal recessive disease and is the most common of the hereditary ataxias
Friedreich ataxia
This is an autosomal recessive hereditary cancer syndrome caused by mutations in the human homolog of the bacterial mutY gene. Because of the autosomal recessive nature of this disorder, the families typically show no evidence of vertical transmission of the disease
MYH-associated Polyposis
It is the measurement of current flowing through an electrochemical cell when potential is applied to the electrodes
Amperometry
This method serves as the reference method in determining total serum protein concentration. The test principle involves acid digestion of proteins to convert the nitrogen to ammonium ion.
Kieldahl method
Friedewald formula
LDL-C = TC – HDL – (TAG/5)
-Use TAG/2.22 if given in mmol/L
In which settings (3) will you not use the Friedewald formula
-when TAG is >400 mg/dL
-high quantities of chylomicrons (lipemic or non-fasting specimens)
-patients with dysbetalipoproteinemia
Disease state that leads to the highest serum elevation of Alkaline Phosphatase
Paget disease (10-25x the upper normal)
Method of incubating fecal material on a piece of filter paper strip in a test tube containing water
Harada-Mori culture
This is a quantitative technique to determine the number of eggs present per gram of faeces (e.p.g.).
McMaster Technique
Possible alternative to ether or ethyl acetate for fecal concentration procedure
Gasoline
Amoebic trophozoite with one nucleus, peripheral chromatin, contains bacteria and WBC but no red blood cells.
Entamoeba gingivalis
Amoebic trophozoite with one nucleus, peripheral chromatin, (+) RBC (-/+) bacteria, (-) WBC
Entamoeba histolytica
Amoebic trophozoite with one nucleus, peripheral chromatin, (-) RBC, (-) bacteria, (-) WBC
Entamoeba hartmanii
Amoebic trophozoite with one nucleus but no peripheral chromatin
Endolimax nana
Most common species of Plasmodium in the cooler parts of the tropics
Plasmodium vivax
It is the largest of the human malaria parasites and the cause of much illness and absenteeism from work and school.
Plasmodium vivax
The method for detection of autoantibodies to nuclear and intracellular antigens which requires precipitin reaction, has high specificity but low sensitivity
Double immunodiffusion
a spread of data in which elements are distributed symmetrically around the mean, with most values close to the center
Gaussian (normal) distribution
mathematical process for calculating the best straight line to t the relationship observed between two variables measured on the same items
Linear regression
calculated as the nth root of the product of a distribution of n numbers
Geometric mean
statistical measures that are calculated based on the assumption that the data points follow a Gaussian distribution and include parameters such as mean, variance, and standard deviation
Parametric statistics
Nonparametric statistics are statistical measures that are based on __ or __ of data
Rank or Order
The specificity of DNA hybridization reactions is determined by which component of hybridization assays?
Probe
In real-time PCR, the two steps which occur simultaneously are:
Amplification and Detection
How many primers are used in loop-mediated amplification?
4 to 6
Chronic Neutrophilic Leukemia (CNL) has been shown to be associated with mutations of:
CSF3R
This morphologic alteration of neutrophils is characterized as large peroxidase-positive granules which represents abnormal lysosomal development in affected cells.
Chediak-Hegashi cells
This mature B-cell neoplasm is morphologically diagnosed by evidence of large cells with slate blue cytoplasm and moderately large, frequently oval or clefted nuclei
Hairy cell leukemia
The characteristic cytochemical feature of hairy cell leukemia include a strong acid phosphatase reaction that is not inhibited by:
Tartaric acid
An ideal antibody in a precipitation reaction has:
High AFFINITY and High AVIDITY
measurement of the absorvance of a stain on a support medium usually done after chromatography
Densitometry
measurement of the current flow produced by an oxidation-reduction reaction
Amperometry
measures quantity of electricity needed to convert an analyte to a different oxidations state
Coulometry
measures potential in between two electrodes in a solution
Potentiometry
measurement of the resulting current from which potential is applied to an electrochemical cell
Voltammetry
By estimate, around how much of medical decisions are based on laboratory results?
70%
Syndrome in obese men, hypertension causes a reduction in plasma volume, resulting in (amongst other changes) a relative increase in red blood cell count
Gaisbock syndrome
In stained preparations, the microfilariae of this species lacks a sheath and lack nuclei in the tail tip
Onchocerca volvulus
In stained preparations, the microfilariae of this species has a sheath but no tail tip nuclei
Wuchereria bancrofti
In stained preparations, the microfilariae of this species has a sheath and two nuclei beyond the ends of the nuclear column
Brugia malayi
In stained preparations, the microfilariae of this species has a poorly-staining sheath with nuclei extending to the rounded tip
Loa loa
Vector of Loa loa (the eye worm)
Chrysops
Vector of Onchocerca volvulus
Simulium
Vector of Wuchereria bancrofti
Culex and Aedes (also Anopheles)
A nematode that can cause a massive infection and may cause rectal prolapse in children
Trichuris trichiura
The protein section of the urine reagent strip is most sensitive to:
Albumin
What calculation is used to determine if there is a breach in the blood-brain barrier?
CSF/Serum albumin ratio
-if <9, intact BBB
Whole blood and RBC units are stored at what temperature?
1°C to 6°C
Platelet concentrates prepared from whole blood and apheresis components are routinely stored at _°C to _°C, with continuous agitation for up to _ days
…20°C to 24°C…
…5 days
National Reference Laboratory for Toxicology
East Avenue Medical Center (EAMC)
Cause of Malignant Tertian Malaria
Plasmodium falciparum
Cause of Benign Tertian Malaria
Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium ovale
Cause of Benign Quartan Malaria
Plasmodium malariae
Cause of Quotidian Malaria
Plasmodium knowlesi
Causative agent for mucocutaneous Leishmaniasis
Leishmania braziliensis
Structural component of Staphylococcus aureus that inhibits antibody mediated clearance by blocking opsonization
Protein A
components of the cell wall which allows Staphylococcus aureus to bind to fibronectin, and subsequently ECM
Teichoic acid
the preferred cleansing agent for syphilitic lesions which may be directly sampled by gentle abrasion
Sterile water
Visualization of __ is necessary for definitive identification of Treponema species under darkfield microscopy
Motility
the endpoint for the manual standard VDRL and RPR tests
Flocculation
This is possibly the most common microdeletion syndrome in humans but not often recognized due to its broad spectrum of clinical features and mild presentation.
Velocardiofacial syndrome
It is the major metabolite of heme, the iron-binding tetrapyrrole ring found in hemoglobin, myoglobin, and cytochromes
Bilirubin
The largest major nonimmunoglobulin protein in plasma, with a molecular weight of 725,000 Da is:
α2-Macroglobulin
most often associated with human leukocyte antigen DR2 and the presence of anti-DNA antibodies among SLE patients
presence of anti-SSa/Ro
shelf life of blood units when additive solutions are utilized
42 days
In the preparation of platelet concentrates, what is the main reason of leaving behind at least 50ml of plasma?
To maintain pH of at least 6.2 during storage
Act regulating the operation and maintenance of clinical laboratories
RA 4688
Philippine AIDS Prevention and Control Act of 1998
RA 8504
National System for Newborn Screening
RA 9288
international standard that specifies the quality management requirements particular to medical laboratories
ISO 15189
Philippine Medical Technology Act of 1969
RA 5527
“Blood Banking Law” – act regulating the collection, processing and sales of human blood.
RA 1517
Five (5) steps of Six Sigma
-Define
-Measure
-Analyze
-Improve
-Control
Six sigma is measured by:
DPMO (Defects per Million Opportunities)
another quality tool aside from six sigma which is ultimately designed to reduce wastes-used by Toyota
Lean process
