CHAPTER TWO Flashcards
SELF-REPORTS (S) DATA
Questionnaires and surveys are commonly used tools.
We often tend to know ourselves better than others do.
High face validity:
These tools typically measure what they appear to measure, which makes them seem more reliable at first glance.
However, it’s challenging to develop self-reported data effectively, as there are many complexities involved in capturing accurate self-perceptions.
What are the advantages of SELF-REPORTS (S) DATA?
- Large amount of information
You are always with yourself
People are usually their own best expert - Access to thoughts, feelings, intentions
- Definitional truth – just because I say it’s true means I must think it’s true
- Casual force
Self-efficacy
Self-verification - Simple and easy
What are teh disadvantages of SELF-REPORTS (S) DATA?
- Bias (people don’t want to be perceived in negative ways) Overly positive or negative
Desire for privacy, faking - Error
Fish-and-water-effect (someone living day to day isn’t going to have the objectivity, example asking RMC students about the CAF doesn’t cover enough area) Know the limits of the people we are asking the questions to
Active distortion of memory
Lack of self-insight
Carelessness (people might not take enough time to throughout think about the survey, might not be a good
participant) - Too simple and too easy
INFORMANT REPORT (I) DATA
Gathering opinions from those who know the person well in daily life:
This includes acquaintances, co-workers, and clinical psychologists.
No specialized training needed to provide these assessments.
Can be more accurate than self-judgments for extremely desirable or undesirable traits, as external observers may have a clearer perspective.
Judgments are based on observations of the person in whatever context the observer knows them from.
Frequently used in daily life to assess personality and behavior.
What are the advantages of INFORMANT REPORT (I) DATA?
A Large Amount of Information
Multiple behaviors across various situations can be assessed.
Judgments from multiple informants (e.g., friends, co-workers) are possible, offering a broader perspective.
Real-World Basis
Assessments are grounded in real-life contexts, not artificial tests or controlled environments.
This makes the information more likely to be relevant to important life outcomes.
Common Sense
Takes the context of the situation into account, providing a more intuitive and practical perspective.
Definitional Truth
The judgments are considered valid simply because they reflect the perspective of the person making the assessment.
Casual Force
A person’s reputation can influence opportunities and expectations in life.
Expectancy effects and behavioral confirmation occur when people act in ways that align with others’ expectations of them.
What are the disadvanatges of INFORMANT REPORT (I) DATA?
Limited Behavioral Information
Observers may only have access to a narrow range of behaviors, limiting their understanding of the person as a whole.
Lack of Access to Private Experiences
External observers do not have insight into a person’s internal thoughts, feelings, or personal experiences, which can provide a more complete picture.
Error
People are more likely to remember extreme, unusual, or emotionally charged behaviors, which can skew their judgment.
Bias
Observers may perceive someone more positively or negatively than they truly are.
This includes phenomena like the Letter of Recommendation Effect (where a person’s traits are viewed more favorably based on external endorsements) and the influence of prejudices and stereotypes.
Mixed Types of Data
-Data do not always fit into only one category.
-There is a wide range of possible types of data that are relevant to personality.
-Each type has advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Laboratory B Data
Advantages
-Range of contexts
-Appearance of objectivity
But subjective judgments must still be made.
Disadvantages
-Difficult and expensive
-Uncertain interpretation
Laboratory B Data
Experiments
-Make a situation happen and record behavior
-Examine reactions to situations
-Represent real-life contexts that are difficult to observe directly
Physiological measures: biological “behavior”
What are Advantages and Disadantages of DATA NATURAL DATA (B)
Advantage
-Realistic
Disadvantages
-Difficult
-Desired contexts seldomly occur.
DATA NATURAL DATA (B)
Based on real life
Diary and experience-sampling methods
EAR: electronically activated recorder
Wearable cameras
Ambulatory assessment: using computer-assisted methods to assess behavior, thoughts, and feelings during normal daily activities
Social media
BEHAVIOURABLE (B) DATA
“The most visible indication of an individual’s personality is what she does” (p. 38).
Observations of daily life or in a lab
Can be from certain kinds of personality tests
What are the disadvantages of LIFE OUTCOMES (L) DATA?
Multidetermination (interaction of several different factors of a disorder)
What are the advantages of LIFE OUTCOMES (L) DATA?
Objective and Verifiable
L-data is grounded in concrete, observable facts that can be verified through external sources, making it more reliable.
Intrinsic Importance
L-data often reflects aspects of personality that have inherent significance. For example, the way someone arranges their bedroom can offer insights into their preferences, habits, or even psychological state.
Psychological Relevance
LIFE OUTCOMES (L) DATA
L-Data: The “Life Data” You Leave Behind
This refers to the information and records that you leave behind, which can be accessed through archival records or self-reports.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Archival Records
Archival records provide valuable, real-world data but may lack context or be incomplete, limiting their interpretability.
The Results or Residue of Personality
L-data represents the marks you leave on the world, reflecting your personality through the tangible outcomes or traces you create in life.
How many types of B data is there?
NATURAL (B) DATA
BEHAVIOURABLE (B) DATA
LABATORY (B) DATA
What measures the quality of Data?
Reliablity
Validity
Genneralizability
What is Reliability?
Measurment of error
The less there is of error, the more reliable the measurement
What is Validity?
The degree to which a meausremner measures what it is supposed to, are you measuring what you say you’re measuring..
Construct validation
-Test the hypothesis through this process
-Gather as many measuresments as possible
Research Method: Case Method
Can yield explanations of particular events, general lessons, and scientific principles
Advantages and Disadvantages of Case Method
Advantages
Describes the whole phenomenon
Source for ideas
Sometimes necessary for understanding an individual
Disadvantage
Unknown generalizabilityResearch Design: Experimental Method
Research Design: Experimental Method
Definition: a research technique that establishes the causal relationship between an independent variable (x) and a dependent variable (y) by randomly assigning participants to experimental groups characterized by differing levels of x, and measuring the average behavior y that results in each group
Research Design: Comparing the Experimental and Correlational Methods
Uncertainty About What Was Really Manipulated
It can be unclear whether the manipulation in an experiment truly represents the intended variable or if other factors are influencing the results.
Third-Variable Problem
Experiments can still fall prey to issues similar to the third-variable problem, where an unseen factor affects both the independent and dependent variables.
Unrealistic or Impossible Levels of a Variable
Sometimes, experiments require setting variables at extreme levels that may not be realistic or achievable in real-world scenarios.
Deception
Many experiments require deception to maintain the integrity of the study, which raises ethical concerns and can impact the validity of results.
Feasibility Issues
Not all variables or phenomena can be easily manipulated in an experimental setting, making experiments difficult or even impossible in certain cases.
Experiments Aren’t Always Better
While experiments have their advantages, they are not always the most effective or suitable method for every research question.
If you are interested in what a person does, rather than what a person says about himself, then you should collect
a.S data.
b. L data.
c. B data.
d.I data.
c. B data.
Data are…
a. clues to personality.
b. always ambiguous.
c. how researchers can “see”
personality.
d. all of the above.
d. all of the above.
What does it mean to say that S data have causal force?
a. S data cause personality.
b. What people think about themselves influences how they behave.
c. How people behave is caused by what others think of them.
d. People’s environments cause their self-perceptions
b. What people think about themselves influences how they behave.
Generalizability
A distinction between reliablity and validity
A broader concept than reliablity and validity
What is Funder’s 2nd Law?
There are no perfect indication of personality; there are only and clues are alwys ambiguous
What are the 4 kinds of clues?
- You can see how the person describes themselves
- see how ther person is faring in life
- see how other people describe them
- observe what the person does and try to measure there behavior as directly and objectively as possible (S,I,L,B)
