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Psychology of Gender- textbook > Chapter 9 > Flashcards

Chapter 9 Flashcards

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1
Q

what is sexual orientation?

A

enduring pattern of cognitive motivational and behavioral tendencies that regulates the experience and expression of sexuality (reinforces the sex and gender binaries)

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2
Q

when were homosexuality and heterosexuality used widely?

A

1930s

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3
Q

how do understandings of sexuality and sexual orientation differ across time and culture?

A

non- western: sexual behavior often has meanings that have little to do with sexual orientation (ex. in new guinea culture pubescent boys must ingest semen from older members of the tribe, this means that they are now a man… NOT that they are gay)

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4
Q

what is a pederastic relationship?

A

men offered education, socialization and protection in exchange for sexual favors from their younger partners

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5
Q

why did peoples thinking about sexual orientation change?

A

western medical and scientific fields developed the idea of sexual orientation to control erotic behavior

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6
Q

what were freuds sexual orientation change efforts (SOCEs)?

A

treated gay and lesbian clients and converted them into heterosexuals

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7
Q

research in the 1960s helped to convert homosexuals into heterosexuals, was it successful?

A

yes, using psychoanalysis, 18-44% of participants converted to heterosexuality (but these participants already had sexual experience with the other gender and who really wanted to change)

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8
Q

some research from the 1960s to 1980s used aversion therapy to condition gay male clients to associate with sexual stimuli, how did this work?

A

would put up a picture of attractive nude men and cause the participant pain, nausea or negative mental imagery
ranged from 0-65% success rate

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9
Q

in what year was same sex sexuality no longer a psychological disorder?

A

1973 (so after this year it was professionally unethical to conduct SOCEs)

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10
Q

in 2000, what did they conclude about SOCEs?

A

dont reduce same- sex attraction or behavior or increase other sex attraction or behavior and many people suffered harm from these efforts

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11
Q

are SOCEs still practiced today?

A

yes, mostly only religion based SOCEs are still practiced on vulnerable sexual minority youth (in 2019 the US banned SOCEs on minors in 18 states)

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12
Q

what are three primary dimensions of sexual orientation?

A

identity
motivation
behavior

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13
Q

what is sexual identity?

A

label that people use to describe their sexual orientation and their emotional reactions toward this label
ex. heterosexual/ straight, lesbian, gay, bi

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14
Q

how frequently are the sexual identities lesbian, gay represented in the population?

A

fewer than 5% of individuals in western cultures experience predominantly same- sex attractions (stable over time and culture)

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15
Q

what is aromantic?

A

lack all romantic interests in others

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16
Q

what is familism?

A

viewing the family as central and prioritizing family over self

i.e. louisa

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17
Q

how do people who are raised with familism values feel when they are gay?

A

report experiencing feelings of regret sadness and conflict surrounding their sexual identity if relatives interpret their same- sex sexuality as a family betrayal

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18
Q

what is internalized homophobia?

A

gay person takes to heart the negative messages they receive about same- sex sexuality from the larger culture

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19
Q

what does fluid mean?

A

their sexual orientation changes over time or they might not like sexual identity labels

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20
Q

what do evolutionary theorists have to say about love and lust?

A

sexual desire (lust) and attachment (love) are distinct but overlapping systems that regulate reproduction and mating
ex. someone may feel sexual desire primarily toward people of the other sex while typically falling in love with people of the same sex
they are part of larger behavioral systems that regulate mating, reproduction and parenting

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21
Q

what does the early stage of love/ passionate love consist of?

A

arousal
urgent longing
exhilaration
obsessive thinking about the love object

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22
Q

passionate love is associated with elevated levels of neurotransmitters, what are they?

A

dopamine (regulates feelings of reward and positive arousal)
norepinephrine (plays a role in sympathetic arousal and the “fight-or-flight” response)

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23
Q

what do the later stages of love/ companionate love consist of?

A

calm, warm and emotionally close feelings of intimacy toward a familiar other

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24
Q

what two neurotransmitters regulate compassionate love?

A

oxytocin
vasopressin (neuropeptide related to intimacy and bonding)

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25
Q

according to evolutionary approaches love (attachment) is adaptive, why?

A

because it encourages individuals to focus their mating efforts on a specific, preferred love object for the purpose of raising offspring
love is part of the mammalian pair bonding system

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26
Q

what is the pair- bonding system?

A

tendency for two adults to bond together, produce offspring and coparent

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27
Q

why are humans considered to mate fast according to evolutionary approaches?

A

because human infants stop nursing at younger ages which means that human adults can have babies at relatively short intervals

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28
Q

what does sexual behavior include?

A

anything that can be considered an erotic act, including behavior performed alone (ex. masturbation, viewing pornography) or with others (ex. anal, oral sex) as well as acts performed with others who are not physically present (ex. cybersex, sexting)

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29
Q

what are the most frequent sexual behaviors reported?

A

masturbation and vaginal intercourse

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30
Q

how common is male- male sexual behavior and female-female sexual behavior around the world?

A

male: 64%
female: 22%

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31
Q

how often do people send sexts (nudes…)?

A

age 10-17: 10-12% sending them, 16% receiving them
age 18-30: 49-53% sending, 33% receiving them

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32
Q

why distinguish between identity (sexual orientation label), motivation (desire) and behavior when defining sexual orientation?

A

when researchers analyze these dimensions separately, it becomes apparent that people do not always experience their sexual orientation in a unified manner with all the dimensions lining up consistently
ex. among men who label themselves heterosexual, 1.6% are sexually attracted to men only
ex.among women who label themselves heterosexual, 3.7% are sexually attracted to both women and men

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33
Q

why is the 3 category system of sexual orientation not enough?

A

fluidity and stability of the identity
ex. stable lesbians, fluid lesbians, fluid bisexual women, unlabeled bisexual women

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34
Q

what is a phase model?

A

the model explains how people come to think of themselves as gay, straight, pansexual, asexual or another sexual identity, but the phases apart of the model might be in a different order for each person
identifies common phases that presumably unfold sequentially for most people

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35
Q

according to lesbian, gay, bisexual phase models, sexual identity development consists of distinct phases, what are they?

A

awareness
exploration
identity uncertainty
deepening and commitment
integration/ synthesis

36
Q

what occurs in the awareness phase?

A

recognize a sense of differentness from others and first realize that people can differ in sexual orientation

37
Q

what feelings might you have in the awareness phase?

A

confusion, fear

38
Q

heterosexual people dont experience the awareness phase due to being in a heteronormative environment, instead they may experience a phase of unexplored commitment, what is it?

A

lack of conscious thought about whether to adopt a heterosexual identity and, for some, an unquestioning acceptance of the privileges of heterosexuality

39
Q

what occurs in the exploration phase?

A

explore same- sex attractions and erotic feelings, learn about other sexual minority people and communities and continue to acquire more complex self- knowledge
or
does not produce clear awareness and self- knowledge, due to internal or external resistance to same sex sexuality (may experience identity uncertainty)

40
Q

what is identity uncertainty?

A

sexual orientation remains unclear

41
Q

what do heterosexual individuals do in the exploration phase?

A

explore and gain awareness of their attractions, sexual preferences, desired partner characteristics and modes of sexual expression
aware of their privilege
or may stay in a prolonged phase of unexplored commitment instead

42
Q

what occurs during the deepening and commitment phase for gay, lesbian and bisexual?

A

information and experiences acquired through exploration lead to an increasing commitment to ones sexual identity, greater self- knowledge and active choices about how to relate to others sexuality

43
Q

what occurs during the deepening and commitment phase for heterosexual?

A

refinement of conscious attitudes and moral values regarding heterosexual privilege and societal treatment of sexual minority individuals

44
Q

what occurs in integration and synthesis phase?

A

sexual identity becomes fully integrated into an overall sense of self
experience their sexual identity as integrated with other valued identities

45
Q

what phases do asexual people go through?

A

awareness (more as identity uncertainty)
discovery of terminology
exploration (expanding knowledge)
identity acceptance and salience negotiation
coming out
integration/ synthesis

46
Q

what occurs in the asexual identity acceptance and salience negotiation phase?

A

asexual individuals may acknowledge and accept asexuality as a legitimate orientation and assess the centrality of asexuality to their sense of self
some feel a strong sense of connection others view it as unimportant to their self concept

47
Q

how do ethnicity and religion shape sexual identity development?

A

middle eastern: deny same- sex sexuality (hard to understand awareness phase, thus having a longer phase of identity uncertainty)

48
Q

what are milestone models of sexual identity development?

A

models that identify the timing, sequence and tone of different milestones that many sexual minority individuals experience (rather than identifying phases)
identify the timing of important turning points

49
Q

what are some milestones of the milestone models of sexual identity?

A

awareness of first same- sex attraction
labeling the self as a sexual minority individual
first same- sex sexual contact and first disclosure of identity to others

50
Q

who goes through the milestones from the milestone models of sexual identity first? boys or girls

A

boys, because girls experience their first same- sex attraction as falling in love and first same- sex experience in a relationship

51
Q

what is the narrative approach to sexual identity development?

A

approach that broadly considers how multiple sources of identity (ex. race, culture, nationality) and pride interact to shape sexual identity development within specific contexts
focuses on broad themes of similarity and difference within specific contexts

52
Q
A
53
Q

what do socializing structures include?

A

social contexts and institutions that either empower or disempower sexual identity development (including family, friends, workplaces, community, religion, culture)

54
Q

what do individual decisions and actions include?

A

private experiences (such as discovering ones sexuality, labeling the self and disclosing to others, acquiring and sharing knowledge, becoming an activist and finding inspiration through creative works)

55
Q

why do people differ in sexual orientation? are people born with an unchangeable sexual orientation, or do life experiences shape our sexuality?

A

no definitive answer, but theres theories

56
Q

what do biological theories 1 say about why people differ in sexual orientation?

A

sexual orientation is moderately heritable
many genes spread across the whole genome, each play a role (only explain 1/3 of sexual orientation)

57
Q

can family dynamics shape sexual orientation? (what is the neurohormonal approach)

A

neurohormonal approach states that fetuses exposed to female- typical hormone levels wil display a preference for male sexual partners at puberty (cooper), those exposed to male-typical levels will display a preference for female partners at puberty (tomboys)

58
Q

what does the second biological theory say about why people differ in sexual orientation?

A

fetal exposure to maternal antibodies plays a role in male sexual orientation.
pregnant womens bodies treat certain Y- linked proteins as foreign invaders and thus, release antibodies which alter their role in male fetal development, this response grows stronger, so after carrying a number of male fetuses, the mothers body produces enough antibodies to increase the likelihood of male same- sex sexuality (blood plasma of mothers of gay sons contains elevated levels of certain antibodies)

59
Q

what is the fraternal birth order effect?

A

worldwide positive correlation between the number of older brothers a man has and his likelihood of identifying as gay (odds of identifying as gay in adulthood increase by 33% for each additional older, biological brother)

60
Q

what is the evolutionary theories, alliance formation hypothesis?

A

friends who bond through same- sex sexual activity are more likely to display reciprocal altruism (risk their own safety or expend their own resources to defend one another)
promotes beneficial friendship

maggie and sadie

61
Q

what is kin selection?

A

helping behavior that is costly to the helper (gay uncle helping their nieces and nephews) in the short term but beneficial in the long term because it will increase probability that their genes are passed on

62
Q

some evolutionary theorists say that male same- sex sexuality is a form of kin selection, how?

A

if a gay man provides larger- than- average amounts of child- rearing asistance to his siblings, increasing the likelihood that his nieces and nephews will survive and pass on their genes, thent he genes that code for same-sex sexuality will get transmitted
lacks support in western cultures

63
Q

what is the fecundity hypothesis?

A

the biological mothers and aunts of gay men tend to have more children than the biological mothers and aunts of heterosexual men

64
Q

what is the tipping point theory?

A

theory that genes for same- sex sexuality get passed on because the same- sex relatives of gay and lesbian people have personalities that increase their likelihood of engaging in reproductive sex

65
Q

what does the integrative approach say about why people differ in sexual orientation?

A

consider how biological and social environmental factors contribute to the development and experience of sexual orientation

66
Q

what is lisa’s integrative biobehavioral model?

A

model proposing that prolonged sex segregation (all girls school) combined with proximity, intimacy and touch can lead people to develop novel sexual desires\
ex. if you go to SMA, you will develop friendships so strong that they are indistinguishable from romantic love

67
Q

are women really less interested than men in casual sex?

A

no (the myth is that women arent as interested due to their window)

68
Q

is it true that men are more sexually assertive than women?

A

the more social power you hold the more you will be sexually assertive (normally men hold higher power)
people who hold more powerful workplace positions also reported more sexual assertiveness in their personal relationship (women and men)

69
Q

are men the more sexual sex?

A

yes, but small effect size

70
Q

in the study showing how men are slightly more sexual, in what topics did women have a greater frequency in than men?

A

same sex sexual experiences
favorable attitudes about sex accompanied by emotional commitment
stronger support for sexual minority rights and same sex marriage

71
Q

why might it be believed that men have a stronger sex drive than women?

A

men self report having a stronger sex drive than women
men report thinking of sex more than women
men are more likely to pay for prostitutes

72
Q

why might it be believed that men do not have a stronger sex drive than women?

A

when connected to “lie detectors” men and women reported similar rates of sexual behavior

73
Q

what is the orgasm gap?

A

the tendency for women to have lower rates of orgasm than men during heterosexual sexual encounters

74
Q

what biological factors affect orgasm frequency in womrn?

A

genes may affect the distance between the clit and the vaginal opening (for women with a larger distance, the clit receives less stimulation during heterosexual intercourse)

75
Q

why are women reluctant to ask for cliteral stimulation when hooking up?

A

fear they will damage their partners ego

76
Q

how does genital reconstructive surgery effect orgasm?

A

transwomen: high orgasm rates after the surgery also some report an increase, decrease or no change concerning spontaneous sexual desire
transmen: high rates of orgasm after surgery and increase in sexual desire

77
Q

what is sexual fluidity?

A

tendency for peoples sexual orientation or sexual identity to change across time (most sexual minority women exhibit this)
hetero women are more likely than men to find men and women hot whereas hetero men and gay men only find the one sex attractive

78
Q

what is sexual proceptivity?

A

mens pattern of sexual desire is proven by this
hormonally driven, internal motivation to initiate sexual activity

79
Q

what is arousability?

A

womens overall pattern of sexual desire
flexible capacity to become aroused in response to sexual stimuli

80
Q

are there sex differences in the age at which people reach their sexual peak, or the height of their interest in and enjoyment of sexual activity?

A

men peak: between ages of 19 and 24
women peak: between ages of 28 and 34

81
Q

does biology think there is a difference in sexual peaks between two sexes?

A

little evidence that the hormone levels of women and men follow different hormone peaks at a younger age
women and men both show similar, gradual increases in sexual activity until age 45 and 55 where it declines

82
Q

what is menopause?

A

end of menstruation and fertility, accompanied by stable declines in estrogen levels (between ages 45-55). sexual desire often declines

83
Q

what is perimenopause?

A

the phase prior to menopause, usually occurs in the early to mid-40s. fertility begins to decline, estrogen levels rise and fall and periods become irregular

84
Q

what is erectile dysfuntion?

A

around age 50, men report having more difficulty achieving or maintaining an erection

85
Q

what is medicalization?

A

the process whereby normal, natural physical conditions and transitions are viewed as medical illnesses that require diagnoses and treatments
ex. viagra

86
Q

some women after menupause use hormone replacement therapies because they are considered “hormone difficient”, how is this harmful?

A

increased risk of developing breast cancer with this medication

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