Chapter 3 Flashcards
what does intersex mean?
individuals who the biological components of sex (chromosomes, hormones, and internal and external genitalia) do not consistently fit either the typical male pattern or the typical female pattern
what was the earliest method for checking for sex?
looking at genitalia
what does sex testing look like now?
look at genitals (normally stops here)
examine the individuals pattern of sex hormones by drawing blood
examine the individuals testosterone levels
what does optimal sex refer to?
the binary sex that doctors and parents perceive as the best option for a newborn whose genitalia appear atypical at birth
how WERE intersex infants socialized according to optimal sex policy?
they should be socialized as either boys or girls beginning in the first 18 months of life (corrective surgery, hormone treatment)
what do doctors now recommend when people have intersex kids?
that they postpone unnecessary surgeries and hormone treatments until children are old enough to understand their situation and consent to treatment
John Money assumed that nurture is stronger than nature in determining individuals gender identity, what is the problem with this?
he argued that children born with weird genitals should be raised as either a male or female
ex. twin bothers were born, one of them had a botched circumcision, followed John Moneys approach and reassigned bruce as female, John Money claimed that bruce developed a typical female gender identity and adjusted well, but really bruce (raised as brenda) was struggling and ended up killing himself because he felt like a boy
what are heritability estimates?
a statistic that specifies the proportion of total population variance in a given trait that is due to genetic differences among the people in the population. can range from 0 (genetic differences among people account for none of the population variance in a trait) to 100 (genetic differences among people account for all of the population variance in a trait
how do women lower their testosterone to normal levels?
by taking hormone suppressing drugs that have unknown side effects
what is nature and nurture?
nature: biological factors such as genes, chromosomes and hormones
nurture: social and cultural factors such as environments, life experiences and socialization
is it nature and nurture or nature vs nurture?
nature and nurture. this is because they both shape sex and gender in powerful ways and we see an increasing consensus that nature and nurture jointly shape sex and gender
what are genes?
the basic units of heredity passed down from parents to offspring that carry the instructions for shaping the offsprings characteristics
what is a gene by environment interaction?
when a genetic effect on a trait (frizzy hair) or behavior occurs only under certain environmental circumstances (humidity) (or when the environmental effect on a trait or behavior depends on a persons genetic makeup)
nature influences nurture
how might gene by environment interactions be passive?
parents create certain rearing environments that cannot be separated from their own (and thus their childs) genetic makeup
ex. parents who are genetically skilled at reading and who both pass along reading skills to their children genetically and create reading- rich environments for them
how might gene by environment interactions be active?
an individuals genetic tendency guides her to choose certain environments
ex. a genetically shy person who deliberately chooses quieter environments than her more extroverted sibling chooses
example of how nurture can influence nature?
ex. when girls experience environments of higher family stress they tend to have an earlier age of menstruation
what is the biopsychosocial model’s view on nature/ nurture?
rejects nature/ nurture and argues that biology (genes and hormones) and environment (culture and learning experiences) mutually influence each other in shaping sex differences and similarities in various cognitive abilities
what is epigenetics?
the study of the biological mechanisms that guide whether or not certain genes get expressed or activated
supports nature and nurturew
what is an epigenetic mark?
molecular structure that sit on genes and instructs them to activate or deactivate
can be influenced by the environment (in the uterus or after birth)
how do epigenetic marks explain why identical twins who are exact genetic copies of each other differ?
because epigenetic marks may activate different genes in the cells of identical twins
because epigenetic marks can be transmitted from mother to offspring (ex. mothers stress levels during pregnancy) may affect not only her own epigenetic environment but her offspring which may alter which genes will be expressed in her offspring (illustrates complex interaction of nature and nurture)
what is an example of how gender- linked behavior can influence peoples genes?
men drink alcohol more frequently and excessively than women, this can alter epigenetic factors and produce changes in the brain DNA
what is the microbiome?
the complex system of microbial microorganisms that lives inside the human body and communicates with the brain along the gut- brain axis
what is the gut brain axis?
bidirectional communications that take place between the brain and the gastrointestinal tract
might sex differences in the composition of the microbiome account for psychological sex differences?
evidence indicates that the health and diversity of the microbiome can influence anxiety and depression
what is sex differentiation?
the complex series of processes that unfolds as the sex- undifferentiated embryo transitions into an individual with male, female or intersex gonads and genitalia
what initiates the process of sex differentiation?
sex chromosomes (allosome)
males have XY
females have XX
which parent determines the sex of the child?
male
what is a chromosome?
the organized units of genes inside the cells of all living organisms. somatic cells (blood cells) in the human body have 23 pairs of chromosomes and reproductive cells have 23 unpaired chromosomes
what are the gonads?
(ovaries and testes) are sex organs that produce sex cells (egg and sperm) and sex hormones (estrogen and testosterone) until week 6 of pregnancy the gonads of female and male human embryos do not differ by sex
what occurs around the 6th week of pregnancy?
Y (SRY gene) initiates the development of the male gonads (testes) and in the absence of Y (SRY gene) the ovaries develop
what occurs around the 8th week of pregnancy?
gonads begin producing hormones (in males the testes produce androgens such as testosterone) (in females the ovaries do not produce many hormones prenatally and thus have internal genetalia)
what occurs at the 12th week of pregnancy?
genital tubercle which is a small bump between the legs
what is the mini puberty period?
a period from birth to about 6 months in which boys experience surges in testosterone and girls experience surges in testosterone and estrogen
what characteristics do estrogen levels influence?
lower estrogen allows you to navigate through mazes faster (study that was done)
this is because estrogen effects the hippocampus (an area of the brain related to learning and memory)
how common is it to have an intersex baby?
as common as having red hair
what is DSD?
differences of sex development, this is what the medical community refers to intersex conditions as
what guides the development of biological sex? (3)
chromosomes genes and hormones
what is the testis- determining factor?
the genes on the Y chromosome that are responsible for initiating the masculinization of fetal gonads
what are the 4 different types of the typical XX or XY chromosome patterns that have been widely studied?
turners syndrome: only a single X chromosome
triple X syndrome: XXX chromosomal pattern
Klinefelter syndrome: XXY chromosomal pattern
Jacobs syndrome: XYY chromosomal pattern
which types of the abnormal chromosomal patterns identify as male?
Klinefelter syndrome (XXY) and Jacobs syndrome (XYY) therefore it can be said that the presence of the Y strongly predicts having a male appearance
what is congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)?
when the body overmanufactures androgens. genetic females XX with this have internal female reproductive organs but tend to have more male genitalia and typically assigned female at birth
what is hyperandrogenism?
a medical condition characterized by an excess of androgens in the female body and can result from CAH but it may also reflect other causes
what is complete androgen insensitivity syndrome (CAIS)?
when the cells of the body do not respond to the influence of androgens. doesn’t disrupt sex development for girls but it does for boys (thus boys XY appear female at birth and express a female gender identity
what is partial androgen insensitivity syndrome (PAIS)?
characterized by a partial inability of cells to repond to androgens only disrupts sex development for genetic males whos genitals may resemble an enlarged clitoris or a small penis depending on the degree of androgen insensitivity
can hormones tell the whole story about ones sex?
no! but hormones sometimes do override the influence of chromosomes in guiding both sex assignment at birth and the development of gender identity
is sex verification tests done on male athletes?
no because a male identified intersex person competing as a man would have a disadvantage because they wouldnt be as fast or strong
why should intersex people not be allowed to compete as a female?
because if women have biological anomalies that push them into the male range (higher testosterone) it creates a disadvantage to the great majority of women who lack these features
what is the logic behind the argument that intersex people should be able to compete as females?
elite athletes have atypical physiologies (ex. shaquille o’neal is 7’ 1”) which gives them a competitive advantage, intersex people also have a competitive advantage with higher testosterone
what factors contribute to gender identity?
biological and social factors
what is a gender confirmation procedure? what are 4 types?
procedures that trans people go through to bring their physical bodies to greater alignment with their psychological identities
surgeries (irreversible)
hormone treatments
psychological therapy
voice and communication therapy
what is phalloplasty? what is metoidioplasty?
both are procedures transmen (female to male) go through
phalloplasty: lengthening of the urethra and construction of a penis using grafted tissue
metoidioplasty: the enlargement and separation of the clitoris to form a penis
what is vaginoplasty? what is breast augmentation?
both are procedures transwomen (male to female) go through
vaginoplasty: the surgical construction of a vagina
are male and female brains much different?
no, the shape is the same and it is hard to tell apart without some investigation. some parts of the brain between male and female differ in size slightly and male brains are about 11% larger in volume
what is magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)?
an imaging procedure that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to create high- resolution images of brain structures
what is functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)?
a brain imaging technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to map brain activity
what part of a womans brain is more dense?
frontal cortex (responsible for strategic planning and decision making)
what part of the mens brain is more dense?
left hippocampus (part of the limbic system that regulates memory, learning and emotion)
left amygdala (part of the limbic system involved in processing and expressing emotion especially fear
what is plasticity/ neuroplasticity?
brains ability to reorganize and adapt physically in response to life experiences and environmental factors (it is especially high during adolescence)
what is dynamic systems theory (DST)?
this theory proposes that sex differences in the brain, body and behavior are small to nonexistent at birth and grow larger over time through dynamic interactions between caregivers and infants (the gender expectations of caregivers shape how they treat their infants which shapes the brain development of their infants, leading to larger sex differences over time)
what is neurosexism?
interpreting the findings from neuroscience research in ways that reinforce gender stereotypes without valid supporting evidence which leads to inaccurate gender stereotypes
reinforce essentialist beliefs that men and women have inherent unique and natural attributes that make them two qualitatively different sexes which increases the popularity of these binary beliefs in the media
what is neuroethics?
prompts neuroscientists to reflect systematically on their perspectives and research practices and to consider the social legal and ethical implications of their findings
what are the two theories that attempt to explain the ultimate origins of sex differences and similarities?
evolutionary psychology
biosocial constructionist theory
what is evolutionary psychology?
a theoretical approach that explains much of human thought and behavior in terms of genetically heritable adaptations that evolved because they helped ancestral humans survive and reproduce
emphasizes biology while acknowledging the important role of environements
ex. women and men should have evolved different psychological and behavioral tendencies in adaptation to different challenges.
what is biosocial constructionist theory?
explains human thought and behavior in terms of genetically heritable adaptations that evolved because they helped ancestral humans survive and reproduce
what are the similarities between evolutionary psychology and biosocial constructionist theory?
each examine why people of different sexeds exhibit certain traits, gender roles, and sex related preferences
both theories consider nature and nurture
what is sexual selection?
a process in which heritable features make an organism more or less likely to reproduce and pass on its genes
what are the 2 forms of sexual selection?
intrasexual selection
intersexual selection
what is intrasexual selection?
an individual may have a feature that gives it a competitive edge over other same sex members in the contest for access to mates
ex. male bighorn sheep use their large curved horns to head butt rivals in an attempt to gains status and access to mates
what is intersexual selection?
an individual may have a feature that gives it an advantage by increasing its attractiveness to the other sex
ex. peacocks evolved elaborate colorful plumage presumably because peahens select the peacocks with the biggest feathers
what is the parental investment theory?
theory proposing that the sex that invests more in parenting (usually female) will be more selective in its choice of mates and will prefer mates who have social status and resources
why dont evolutionary psychologists and feminist psychologists see eye to eye?
evolutionary is very heteronormative
feminist ignores biological factors
what is biosocial constructionist theory emphasize and believe?
emphasizes the environment while acknowledging the important role of biology
believe that the key to understanding sex differences and similarities is the division of labor in societies (trend in women and men doing similar jobs)
what should a comprehensive theory of sex differences and similarities look like?
should be interactionist (recognizing both nature and nurture)
should address how a range of physical and biological differences among sexes may produce different behaviors and traits
should move beyond the sex and gender binaries and consider how sex differences might vary based on other important categories of identity (race, class, age, ability)
should consider the factors that motivate not just heterosexual but same- sex sexual activity
should acknowledge that the environment can alter biology in subtle ways that can significant consequences
how are biological and social factors intertwined?
biology shapes our social and cultural experiences and sociocultural factors shape our biology
is it nature vs nurture or nature and nurture?
nature and nurture
