Chapter 8 - Memory

Question 1

Encoding

Answer 1

The process of converting information from environment into a format that can be stored in memory

Question 2

Storage

Answer 2

The retention of encoded information over time

Question 3

Retrieval

Answer 3

The process of accessing and bringing stored information back into consciousness when needed

Question 4

Types of Encoding

Answer 4

Automatic and effortful processing

Question 5

Automatic Processing

Answer 5

The unconscious encoding of information with little to no effort

Question 6

Effortful Processing

Answer 6

The conscious and intentional encoding of information that requires attention and effort

Question 7

Types of Information

Answer 7

Semantic, visual, acoustic encoding

Question 8

Semantic Encoding

Answer 8

The process of encoding information based on its meaning.
Self-reference effect
Strongest type of memory

Question 9

Self-reference effect

Answer 9

The tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to information that has less personal relevance

Semantic endcoding

Question 10

Acoustic Encoding

Answer 10

The process of encoding information based on its sound

Question 10

Visual Encoding

Answer 10

The process of encoding information through visual images or spatial relationships

EX: remembering a face (kinda blurry)

Question 11

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

Answer 11

Memory consists of three distinct stages.
* Each stage has a different duration (how long information is retained) and capacity (how much information can be stored)

Question 12

Sensory Memory

Answer 12

A brief, initial stage of memory that holds sensory information (sights, sounds, smells, etc.) for a fraction of a second to a few seconds

Question 13

Short-term Memory (STM)

Answer 13

A temporary memory system that holds information for a short duration (typically 15-30 seconds) and can store about 7±2 items (magic number)

Question 14

Rehearsal

Answer 14

The process of consciously repeating information to keep it in short-term memory or to transfer it to long-term memory

Helps with short-term memory

Question 15

Long-term Memory (LTM)

Answer 15

A more permanent memory system that stores information for extended periods, from hours to a lifetime

Question 16

Parts of Long term memory

Answer 16

Semantic networks: Structures that represent how concepts are organized in the brain by linking related ideas together
* Related to semantic memory

Spreading activation: Activating one concept (or node) triggers the activation of related concepts

Nodes - big ideas connected by meaning or relationships
* Triggering one node can trigger other concepts/nodes

Question 17

Explicit/Declarative Memories

Answer 17

A type of long-term memory that involves conscious recall of facts, events, or experiences
* Can verbalize

Question 18

Episodic Memory (autobiographical)

Answer 18

A type of explicit memory that involves the recall of personal experiences and specific events from your life
* Ex. The time, place, emotions, and context of an experience
* i.e., personal experiences you can verbalize

Question 19

Semantic Memory

Answer 19

A type of explicit memory that refers to your general knowledge about the world
* Ex. Facts, concepts, and meanings that are not tied to specific personal experiences
* i.e., facts and knowledge you can verbalize

Question 20

Implicit/Nondeclarative Memories

Answer 20

Unconscious and automatic memory, like skills and habits, which you perform without thinking

Question 21

Procedural

Answer 21

A type of implicit memory that involves knowledge of how to perform tasks and actions, often without conscious awareness
* Ex. Performing tasks/actions without conscious awareness
* i.e., muscle memory, biking

Question 22

Emotional Conditioning

Answer 22

A type of implicit memory that involves the unconscious association between emotions and specific stimuli
* Ex. Feeling anxious when hearing a song associated with a negative memory

Question 23

Retrieval: Three Ways to Retrieve Information

Answer 23

Recall, recognition, relearning

Question 24

Recall

Answer 24

The ability to retrieve information or memories without cues

Question 25

Recognition

Answer 25

The process of identifying information or stimuli that have been encountered before when presented with it again

Question 26

Relearning

Answer 26

The process of retrieving previously learned information that has been forgotten, where the material is acquired more quickly during subsequent learning attempts

Question 27

Engram

Answer 27

A theoretical construct representing the physical trace or imprint of a memory in the brain. .e., the group of neurons that serve as the “physical representation of memory”

Question 28

Karl Lashley

Answer 28

Idea that specific memories were in a specific parts of the brain (engram) * Taught mice a behavior then lensioned parts of the brain to see if they forgot the memory

Question 29

Equipotentiality hypothesis & suggestor

Answer 29

Some parts of the brain can take over for damaged parts in forming and storing memories Suggested by Karl Lashley

Question 30

Parts of the Brain Involved in Memory

Answer 30

Prefrontal Cortex, amygdala, hippocampus, cerebellum

Question 31

Prefrontal Cortex

Answer 31

Location: Located at the front part of the frontal lobes Function: Involved in higher-order cognitive processes, such as decision-making, planning, and impulse control Involved in: Social behavior, personality expression, and moderating social interactions

Question 32

Prefrontal cortex key study

Answer 32

In a PET scan study, higher activity in the left prefrontal cortex was associated with a semantic task, highlighting its role in memory retention

Question 33

Amygdala = Amygdale (Geek word, almond)

Answer 33

Location: Deep within the temporal lobe, part of the subcortical regions Function: Key role in processing emotions, especially fear, anxiety, and aggression Involved in: Emotional learning and forming emotional memories (emotional memory is better memorized)

Question 34

Amygdala key study

Answer 34

Rats were first trained to associate a tone and shock (classical conditioning, fear memory) and then underwent a procedure that ablated (killed cells) the amygdala. This caused the fear memory to diminish.

Question 35

Hippocampus = Hippocampe (Greek word, seahorse)

Answer 35

Location: Deep within the medial temporal lobe, part of the limbic system Function: Essential for learning and memory, particularly in the formation of new explicit memories Involved in: Spatial navigation and contextual (surroundings) memory formation

Question 36

Hippocampus key study

Answer 36

Rats with hippocampus lesions show impairment in tasks like object recognition and maze running

Question 37

Cerebellum = Cerebellum (Latin word, "little brain" → acts as its own brain)

Answer 37

Location: Located at the back of the brain, beneath the occipital lobes Function: Important for motor control, coordination, and balance Involved in: Fine-tuning movements, motor learning, and cognitive functions such as attention and classical conditioning

Question 38

Cerebellum key study

Answer 38

Rabbits were first trained to associate a tone with a puff of air to the eye (classical conditioning). When the cerebellum was lesioned, the conditioned eyeblink response diminished.

Question 39

Arousal theory

Answer 39

An increased level of physiological arousal (e.g., heart rate, stress hormones) enhances performance and memory retention

Question 40

Flashbulb memories

Answer 40

Vivid and detailed recollections of significant events, often accompanied by strong emotional responses Arousal theory

Question 41

Memory Reconstruction

Answer 41

The process by which individuals retrieve and reconstruct memories from their past * Memories are often influenced by various factors such as emotions, prior knowledge, and external cues * Can be affected when someone tells you about an event (even when fake)

Question 42

Rehearsal

Answer 42

Repeatedly practicing or reviewing information

Question 43

Elaborative rehearsal

Answer 43

Linking new information to existing knowledge by “elaborating” on its meaning and repeating the information.

Question 44

Chunking

Answer 44

Breaking down large pieces of information into smaller, manageable units (or "chunks") to make it easier to remember and retrieve Ex. 9676784352 vs 967 – 678 - 4352

Question 45

Mnemonic devices

Answer 45

Memory aids or techniques that use associations, patterns, or acronyms to help individuals recall information more easily ROYGBIV

Question 46

How to Study Effectively

Answer 46

1. Use elaborative rehearsal * Make associations and practice them 2. Apply the self-reference effect * Make associations with things that are important to you 3. Use distributed practice * Practice for a long time 4. Rehearse, rehearse, rehearse 5. Study efficiently * Parkinson’s Law 6. Be aware of interference - avoid distractions 7. Keep moving * Aerobic exercise promotes neurogenesis, the growth of new brain cells 8. Get enough sleep 9. Make use of mnemonic devices

Question 47

Parkinson's Law

Answer 47

Work expands so as to fill the time available for its completion However long you give yourself is how long it takes

Question 48

Amnesia

Answer 48

A condition characterized by the loss of memory, which can affect the ability to recall past events (retrograde amnesia) or to form new memories (anterograde amnesia).

Question 49

Common causes of amnesia

Answer 49

Brain injury (e.g., stroke, traumatic brain injury) Neurological conditions (e.g., Alzheimer's disease) Infections affecting the brain (inflammation) Surgical procedures affecting the brain (parts of brain removed) Substance abuse (e.g., alcohol-related blackouts) Psychological trauma

Question 50

Retrograde Amnesia

Answer 50

A type of memory loss where a person is unable to recall events or information from before the onset of amnesia It affects memories that were formed prior to the event that caused the amnesia. Can’t recall the past

Question 51

Retrograde Amnesia key story

Answer 51

Clive Wearing Infected by a herpes virus which leads to encephalitis in the hippocampus (inflammation of the brain). He forgot all about his past but still had procedural memories (could play the piano)

Question 52

Anterograde Amnesia

Answer 52

A form of memory loss where a person is unable to form new memories after the onset of amnesia * It affects the ability to create new long-term memories but typically leaves older memories intact.

Question 53

Anterograde Amnesia Key Story

Answer 53

Henry Molaison (H.M.) Had a surgical procedure to help with his seizures which had his hippocampus removed. Could still do procedure tasks.

Question 54

Reconstruction

Answer 54

The process of recalling or "rebuilding" a memory during retrieval There are subtle or significant changes in memories every time we reconstruct a memory Gaps are filled by: * Current knowledge & beliefs * Emotional state * Suggestions * External environment

Question 55

Suggestibility

Answer 55

The tendency to be influenced by external information, leading to altered or distorted memories

Question 56

Suggestibility Key story

Answer 56

D.C. Sniper Attacks (2002) - random attacks happening at gas stations. The police asked the public for some clues. Someone said they saw a white van and everyone started saying that they remembered a white van. The actual assailants were in a blue car.

Question 57

Eyewitness misidentification

Answer 57

When a witness to a crime incorrectly identifies an innocent person as the perpetrator

Question 58

Eyewitness misidentification Key Story

Answer 58

The Wrongful Conviction of Ronald Cotton (1984) - Jennifer Thompson was sexually assaulted and she vowed to remember the person. She was given a list of people and she chose Ronald Cotton. Ronald Cotton went to jail. He was freed after they found DNA evidence. 10.5 years in prison. * The police said she did great after she asks * Wrote a book together (wow)

Question 59

Misinformation effect paradigm

Answer 59

A psychological phenomenon that demonstrates how the introduction of misleading information after an event can alter a person's memory of that event.

Question 60

Loftus and Palmer, 1947

Answer 60

Wanted to test if wordings affected responses. Showed a car accident and asked a question with different words. How fast were the cars going when they _______________ each other? * Smashed * Collided * Bumped * Hit * Contacted Broken glass? - false memories of glass being at the scene

Question 61

False memory syndrome

Answer 61

An individual has a strong belief in a recollection of an event that did not actually occur or is significantly distorted

Question 62

Can occur for repressed memories of childhood sexual abuse

Answer 62

Repressed memeories can be later recalled through hypnosis and guided imagery 59% of 140 men and women receiving treatment had forgotten about their experiences

Question 63

Can't occur for repressed memories of childhood sexual abuse

Answer 63

Recovered memories may not be accurate, suggestibility during recovery process may lead to misinformation effects Children who were asked suggestive questions gave false memory reports * dolls and doctors

Question 64

Forgetting

Answer 64

The loss of information from long-term memory

Question 65

Encoding Failure

Answer 65

The failure to successfully transfer information from short-term memory to long-term memory due to insufficient attention or engagement during the learning process Type of forgetting

Question 66

Memory errors

Answer 66

Inaccuracies or distortions that occur during the encoding, storage, or retrieval of memories

Question 67

Types of memory errors

Answer 67

Forgetting – loss of memory Distortion – altered memory details Intrusion – unwanted memory emergence

Question 68

Transience

Answer 68

Accessibility of memory decreases over time Forgetting

Question 69

Absentmindedness

Answer 69

Forgetting caused by lapses in attention Forgetting

Question 70

Blocking

Answer 70

Accessibility of information is temporarily blocked Can be solved by walking away or trying to think of another thing. Forgetting

Question 71

Misattribution

Answer 71

Source of memory is confused Distortion

Question 72

Suggestibility

Answer 72

False memories Distortion

Question 73

Bias

Answer 73

Memories distorted by current belief system Distortion

Question 74

Persistence

Answer 74

Inability to forget undesirable memories Intrusion

Question 75

Interference

Answer 75

The phenomenon where one memory competes with or disrupts the retrieval of another memory

Question 76

Proactive interference

Answer 76

When older memories hinder the ability to remember new information Ex. If you’ve learned one phone number and then get a new one, recalling the new number might be harder because the old one keeps coming to mind.

Question 77

Retroactive interference

Answer 77

When new information makes it difficult to recall older memories. Ex. Learning a new password may cause you to forget an older password.