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PBSI 107 > Chapter 8 - Memory > Flashcards

Chapter 8 - Memory Flashcards

1
Q

Encoding

A

The process of converting information from environment into a format that can be stored in memory

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2
Q

Storage

A

The retention of encoded information over time

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3
Q

Retrieval

A

The process of accessing and bringing stored information back into consciousness when needed

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4
Q

Types of Encoding

A

Automatic and effortful processing

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5
Q

Automatic Processing

A

The unconscious encoding of information with little to no effort

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6
Q

Effortful Processing

A

The conscious and intentional encoding of information that requires attention and effort

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7
Q

Types of Information

A

Semantic, visual, acoustic encoding

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8
Q

Semantic Encoding

A

The process of encoding information based on its meaning.
Self-reference effect
Strongest type of memory

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9
Q

Self-reference effect

A

The tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to information that has less personal relevance

Semantic endcoding

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10
Q

Acoustic Encoding

A

The process of encoding information based on its sound

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10
Q

Visual Encoding

A

The process of encoding information through visual images or spatial relationships

EX: remembering a face (kinda blurry)

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11
Q

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

A

Memory consists of three distinct stages.
* Each stage has a different duration (how long information is retained) and capacity (how much information can be stored)

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12
Q

Sensory Memory

A

A brief, initial stage of memory that holds sensory information (sights, sounds, smells, etc.) for a fraction of a second to a few seconds

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13
Q

Short-term Memory (STM)

A

A temporary memory system that holds information for a short duration (typically 15-30 seconds) and can store about 7±2 items (magic number)

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14
Q

Rehearsal

A

The process of consciously repeating information to keep it in short-term memory or to transfer it to long-term memory

Helps with short-term memory

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15
Q

Long-term Memory (LTM)

A

A more permanent memory system that stores information for extended periods, from hours to a lifetime

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16
Q

Parts of Long term memory

A

Semantic networks: Structures that represent how concepts are organized in the brain by linking related ideas together
* Related to semantic memory

Spreading activation: Activating one concept (or node) triggers the activation of related concepts

Nodes - big ideas connected by meaning or relationships
* Triggering one node can trigger other concepts/nodes

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17
Q

Explicit/Declarative Memories

A

A type of long-term memory that involves conscious recall of facts, events, or experiences
* Can verbalize

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18
Q

Episodic Memory (autobiographical)

A

A type of explicit memory that involves the recall of personal experiences and specific events from your life
* Ex. The time, place, emotions, and context of an experience
* i.e., personal experiences you can verbalize

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19
Q

Semantic Memory

A

A type of explicit memory that refers to your general knowledge about the world
* Ex. Facts, concepts, and meanings that are not tied to specific personal experiences
* i.e., facts and knowledge you can verbalize

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20
Q

Implicit/Nondeclarative Memories

A

Unconscious and automatic memory, like skills and habits, which you perform without thinking

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21
Q

Procedural

A

A type of implicit memory that involves knowledge of how to perform tasks and actions, often without conscious awareness
* Ex. Performing tasks/actions without conscious awareness
* i.e., muscle memory, biking

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22
Q

Emotional Conditioning

A

A type of implicit memory that involves the unconscious association between emotions and specific stimuli
* Ex. Feeling anxious when hearing a song associated with a negative memory

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23
Q

Retrieval: Three Ways to Retrieve Information

A

Recall, recognition, relearning

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24
Q

Recall

A

The ability to retrieve information or memories without cues

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25
Q

Recognition

A

The process of identifying information or stimuli that have been encountered before when presented with it again

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26
Q

Relearning

A

The process of retrieving previously learned information that has been forgotten, where the material is acquired more quickly during subsequent learning attempts

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27
Q

Engram

A

A theoretical construct representing the physical trace or imprint of a memory in the brain.

.e., the group of neurons that serve as the “physical representation of memory”

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28
Q

Karl Lashley

A

Idea that specific memories were in a specific parts of the brain (engram)
* Taught mice a behavior then lensioned parts of the brain to see if they forgot the memory

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29
Q

Equipotentiality hypothesis & suggestor

A

Some parts of the brain can take over for damaged parts in forming and storing memories

Suggested by Karl Lashley

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30
Q

Parts of the Brain Involved in Memory

A

Prefrontal Cortex, amygdala, hippocampus, cerebellum

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31
Q

Prefrontal Cortex

A

Location: Located at the front part of the frontal lobes
Function: Involved in higher-order cognitive processes, such as decision-making, planning, and impulse control
Involved in: Social behavior, personality expression, and moderating social interactions

32
Q

Prefrontal cortex key study

A

In a PET scan study, higher activity in the left prefrontal cortex was associated with a semantic task, highlighting its role in memory retention

33
Q

Amygdala = Amygdale (Geek word, almond)

A

Location: Deep within the temporal lobe, part of the subcortical regions
Function: Key role in processing emotions, especially fear, anxiety, and aggression
Involved in: Emotional learning and forming emotional memories (emotional memory is better memorized)

34
Q

Amygdala key study

A

Rats were first trained to associate a tone and shock (classical conditioning, fear memory) and then underwent a procedure that ablated (killed cells) the amygdala. This caused the fear memory to diminish.

35
Q

Hippocampus = Hippocampe (Greek word, seahorse)

A

Location: Deep within the medial temporal lobe, part of the limbic system
Function: Essential for learning and memory, particularly in the formation of new explicit memories
Involved in: Spatial navigation and contextual (surroundings) memory formation

36
Q

Hippocampus key study

A

Rats with hippocampus lesions show impairment in tasks like object recognition and maze running

37
Q

Cerebellum = Cerebellum (Latin word, “little brain” → acts as its own brain)

A

Location: Located at the back of the brain, beneath the occipital lobes
Function: Important for motor control, coordination, and balance
Involved in: Fine-tuning movements, motor learning, and cognitive functions such as attention and classical conditioning

38
Q

Cerebellum key study

A

Rabbits were first trained to associate a tone with a puff of air to the eye (classical conditioning). When the cerebellum was lesioned, the conditioned eyeblink response diminished.

39
Q

Arousal theory

A

An increased level of physiological arousal (e.g., heart rate, stress hormones) enhances performance and memory retention

40
Q

Flashbulb memories

A

Vivid and detailed recollections of significant events, often accompanied by strong emotional responses

Arousal theory

41
Q

Memory Reconstruction

A

The process by which individuals retrieve and reconstruct memories from their past
* Memories are often influenced by various factors such as emotions, prior knowledge, and external cues
* Can be affected when someone tells you about an event (even when fake)

42
Q

Rehearsal

A

Repeatedly practicing or reviewing information

43
Q

Elaborative rehearsal

A

Linking new information to existing knowledge by “elaborating” on its
meaning and repeating the information.

44
Q

Chunking

A

Breaking down large pieces of information into smaller, manageable units (or “chunks”) to make it easier to remember and retrieve

Ex. 9676784352 vs 967 – 678 - 4352

45
Q

Mnemonic devices

A

Memory aids or techniques that use associations, patterns, or acronyms to help individuals recall information more easily
ROYGBIV

46
Q

How to Study Effectively

A
  1. Use elaborative rehearsal
    * Make associations and practice them
  2. Apply the self-reference effect
    * Make associations with things that are important to you
  3. Use distributed practice
    * Practice for a long time
  4. Rehearse, rehearse, rehearse
  5. Study efficiently
    * Parkinson’s Law
  6. Be aware of interference - avoid distractions
  7. Keep moving
    * Aerobic exercise promotes neurogenesis, the growth of new brain cells
  8. Get enough sleep
  9. Make use of mnemonic devices
47
Q

Parkinson’s Law

A

Work expands so as to fill the time available for its completion

However long you give yourself is how long it takes

48
Q

Amnesia

A

A condition characterized by the loss of memory, which can affect the ability to recall past events (retrograde amnesia) or to form new memories (anterograde amnesia).

49
Q

Common causes of amnesia

A

Brain injury (e.g., stroke, traumatic brain injury)
Neurological conditions (e.g., Alzheimer’s disease)
Infections affecting the brain (inflammation)
Surgical procedures affecting the brain (parts of brain removed)
Substance abuse (e.g., alcohol-related blackouts)
Psychological trauma

50
Q

Retrograde Amnesia

A

A type of memory loss where a person is unable to recall events or information from before the onset of amnesia
It affects memories that were formed prior to the event that caused the amnesia.
Can’t recall the past

51
Q

Retrograde Amnesia key story

A

Clive Wearing
Infected by a herpes virus which leads to encephalitis in the hippocampus (inflammation of the brain). He forgot all about his past but still had procedural memories (could play the piano)

52
Q

Anterograde Amnesia

A

A form of memory loss where a person is unable to form new memories after the onset of amnesia
* It affects the ability to create new long-term memories but typically leaves older memories intact.

53
Q

Anterograde Amnesia Key Story

A

Henry Molaison (H.M.)
Had a surgical procedure to help with his seizures which had his hippocampus removed. Could still do procedure tasks.

54
Q

Reconstruction

A

The process of recalling or “rebuilding” a memory during retrieval

There are subtle or significant changes in memories every time we reconstruct a memory

Gaps are filled by:
* Current knowledge & beliefs
* Emotional state
* Suggestions
* External environment

55
Q

Suggestibility

A

The tendency to be influenced by external information, leading to altered or distorted memories

56
Q

Suggestibility Key story

A

D.C. Sniper Attacks (2002) - random attacks happening at gas stations. The police asked the public for some clues. Someone said they saw a white van and everyone started saying that they remembered a white van. The actual assailants were in a blue car.

57
Q

Eyewitness misidentification

A

When a witness to a crime incorrectly identifies an innocent person as the perpetrator

58
Q

Eyewitness misidentification Key Story

A

The Wrongful Conviction of Ronald Cotton (1984) - Jennifer Thompson was sexually assaulted and she vowed to remember the person. She was given a list of people and she chose Ronald Cotton. Ronald Cotton went to jail. He was freed after they found DNA evidence. 10.5 years in prison.
* The police said she did great after she asks
* Wrote a book together (wow)

59
Q

Misinformation effect paradigm

A

A psychological phenomenon that demonstrates how the introduction of misleading information after an event can alter a person’s memory of that event.

60
Q

Loftus and Palmer, 1947

A

Wanted to test if wordings affected responses. Showed a car accident and asked a question with different words.

How fast were the cars going when they _______________ each other?
* Smashed
* Collided
* Bumped
* Hit
* Contacted
Broken glass? - false memories of glass being at the scene

61
Q

False memory syndrome

A

An individual has a strong belief in a recollection of an event that did not actually occur or is significantly distorted

62
Q

Can occur for repressed memories of childhood sexual abuse

A

Repressed memeories can be later recalled through hypnosis and guided imagery

59% of 140 men and women receiving treatment had forgotten about their experiences

63
Q

Can’t occur for repressed memories of childhood sexual abuse

A

Recovered memories may not be accurate, suggestibility during recovery process may lead to misinformation effects

Children who were asked suggestive questions gave false memory reports
* dolls and doctors

64
Q

Forgetting

A

The loss of information from long-term memory

65
Q

Encoding Failure

A

The failure to successfully transfer information from short-term memory to long-term memory due to insufficient attention or engagement during the learning process

Type of forgetting

66
Q

Memory errors

A

Inaccuracies or distortions that occur during the encoding, storage, or retrieval of memories

67
Q

Types of memory errors

A

Forgetting – loss of memory
Distortion – altered memory details
Intrusion – unwanted memory emergence

68
Q

Transience

A

Accessibility of memory decreases over time

Forgetting

69
Q

Absentmindedness

A

Forgetting caused by lapses in attention

Forgetting

70
Q

Blocking

A

Accessibility of information is temporarily blocked

Can be solved by walking away or trying to think of another thing.

Forgetting

71
Q

Misattribution

A

Source of memory is confused

Distortion

72
Q

Suggestibility

A

False memories

Distortion

73
Q

Bias

A

Memories distorted by current belief system

Distortion

74
Q

Persistence

A

Inability to forget undesirable memories

Intrusion

75
Q

Interference

A

The phenomenon where one memory competes with or disrupts the retrieval of another memory

76
Q

Proactive interference

A

When older memories hinder the ability to remember new information
Ex. If you’ve learned one phone number and then get a new one, recalling the new number might be harder because the old one keeps coming to mind.

77
Q

Retroactive interference

A

When new information makes it difficult to recall older memories.
Ex. Learning a new password may cause you to forget an older password.

PBSI 107 (10 decks)

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