Chapter 8 - Development Flashcards
What involves the physical, cognitive, social, emotional and psychological changes that we go through?
Development
Which psychologists study the normal (and abnormal) changes that we go through?
Developmental psychologists
What factors do developmental psychologists take into account?
Genetics (nature) and social interactions (nurture)
What is the study of age-related changes in behavior and mental processes from conception to death?
Developmental psychology
What is the type of study in which researchers compare groups of individuals of different ages with respect to certain characteristics to determine age-related differences?
Cross-sectional study
What are problems associated with cross-sectional studies?
May not represent the general population and can’t predict or generalize accurately to the population
What is a developmental study in which the same group of individuals is followed and measured at different times or different ages?
Longitudinal study
Which type of developmental study has an excellent ability to generalize to a population?
Longitudinal study
What is the biological blueprint that determines and directs the transmission of all hereditary traits?
Genes
What is the most basic building blocks of heredity?
Genes
What is a gene that is expressed in the individual?
Dominant gene
What is a gene that will not be expressed if paired with a dominant gene, but will be expressed if paired with another recessive gene?
Recessive
What are the rod-shaped structures found in the nuclei of body cells, containing all the genes and carrying all hereditary information?
Chromosomes
How many pairs of chromosomes do we have?
23 pairs
What are our 23 pairs of chromosomes, 46 in all, known as?
Twin Helix
How many single chromosomes are contained in the egg and sperm?
23
How many pairs of chromosomes are responsible for physical and mental traits?
22
How many pairs of chromosomes are responsible for our sex traits?
1
What is a fertilized ovum (egg cell) that travels to the uterus and attaches to the uterine wall?
Zygote
Where does fertilization take place?
Fallopian tubes
What are the 3 stages of prenatal development?
1) Germinal stage
2) embryonic stage
3) fetal stage
What stage of prenatal development happens from conception to implantation, approximately 2 weeks in length?
Germinal stage
What is known as the developmental period from conception until birth, 38 weeks before birth?
Prenatal
What is the stage from implantation until about 8th week of development?
Embryonic stage
What is the stage of prenatal development in which major body structures and organ systems develop?
Embryonic stage
What is the prenatal stage from 9th week until birth?
Fetal stage
What is the prenatal stage of development characterized by maturation and gains in size?
Fetal stage
What is a membrane that permits the exchange of nutrients and waste between the mother and developing child?
Placenta
Does the placenta allow the maternal and fetal bloodstreams to mix?
NO
What would happen if the maternal and fetal bloodstreams mixed?
The mother’s body would attack the baby is a foreign object, causing abortion
What is a harmful or toxic agent - such as a disease, drug, chemical, or radiation?
Teratogen
What did the effects of teratogens depend on?
Initiation, intensity, and frequency of use
When are teratogens most harmful to the fetus?
Critical periods of development
What is a period that is so important to development that a harmful, environmental influence has lasting consequences to the development of the fetus?
Critical period
What are harmful or toxic agents that can pass through the placenta barrier?
Teratogens
What is the syndrome caused by drinking during pregnancy, and 100% preventable?
Fetal alcohol syndrome
What are some developmental abnormalities that a child may display who experiences fetal alcohol syndrome?
Retarded mental development, abnormally small head, wide-set eyes, short nose, behavioural abnormalities, inability to learn from mistakes
What do you some researchers contend about the increase in stats of ADHD?
Perhaps there is no increase in stats but clinicians are simply applying a convenient label
What are twins with exactly the same genes, who develop after one egg is fertilized by one sperm, and the zygote splits into two parts?
Identical Twins (monozygotic)
Is physical development lifelong?
YES
What is the stage of development that is initial growth?
Cephalocaudal
What pattern of growth does cephalocaudal development have?
Head down (head grows first)
What is the more mature growth stage of development?
Proximodistal
What growth do we experience during proximodistal development?
Core out - organs grow before extremities
What happens to infants weight at 5 months?
Weight doubles
How old are infants when their weight triples?
1 year old
How many kg do infants gain during their second year?
2-3 kg
What are some of the reflexes (automatic, unlearned responses) that newborns have?
Rooting, sucking, withdrawal, Moro, grasping, babinski
What do pediatricians test to assess babies’ neural functioning?
Reflexes
What two influences guide physical development?
Genetic and environmental
How long does it take infants to track a moving light?
A couple days
How long does it take infants to discriminate colours?
3 months
What is a newborn’s vision like?
Nearsighted, but can see distant objects by 4 months
When do infants show a preference for the human face?
2 months
What sense exists before birth?
Hearing
What is a prelinguistic event?
Crying
How do infants begin to show pleasure in their second month?
Cooing
When do children begin to babble?
5-6 months
When is a child’s first word uttered?
Around 1st birthday
How many words are infants producing by 18 months?
24 words
What are single words used by infants to express complex meanings?
Holophrase
What are 2-word, brief, grammatically-correct sentences that begin by the end of a baby’s second year?
Telegraphic speech
What is interesting about the timing of telegraphic speech?
Timing and sequence is universal
What is the application of regular grammatical rules for forming inflections to irregular verbs and nouns?
Overregularization
How many words in a child’s vocabulary at 6 years?
10,000
When do children understand that some words can have double meanings?
7-9
What is the period of life bounded by puberty and the assumption of adult responsibilities?
Adolescence
How long does a growth spurt last?
2-3 years
What is the period of development which body becomes sexually mature?
Puberty
When do secondary sex characteristics begin to appear?
Puberty
What are puberty changes triggered by?
Biologically timed release of hormones
What factors influence physical development in adolescence?
1) Heredity
2) nutrition and exercise
3) body fat
4) leptin in girls
5) geographical location
6) socioeconomic status
7) family experiences
8) secular trend
What signifies the sexual development in young men?
Spermarche
What signifies the sexual development in young women?
Menarche
When does preparation for their first menstrual period begin in women?
Menarche (12.5-13.5 yo)
What is the monthly hormonal change that triggers the ovary to release an egg?
Ovulation
What trend suggests that there is a declining age in young women experiencing menarche?
Secular
What is the secular trend attributed to?
Dietary changes
What is the prime time in the physical development of adults?
20-40 years old
When are adults most vulnerable mentally?
Young/early adulthood - 20-40 years
When do you begin to experience a gradual decline in strength, coordination and stamina?
Middle adulthood
What signals the cessation of productivity and menstruation, beginning in late 40’s or early 50’s?
Menopause
How long can menopause last?
3-5 years
What is bone disease characterized by deterioration of bone tissues and low bone mass?
Osteoporosis
What changes occur in late adulthood that can cause problems?
Changes in calcium metabolism make bones more brittle, skin becomes less elastic, sensory systems decline, immune system function declines
Who is one of the most influential researchers in cognitive development?
Jean Piaget
Which psychologist believed children constantly want to make sense of their sensory and life experiences?
Jean Piaget
Who believed children construct their own understanding of their world?
Jean Piaget
Who believed knowledge builds progressively through logically embedded structures called schemas?
Jean Piaget
Who believed children learn differently than adults by interacting with their world?
Jean Piaget
What are mental structures used to organize and understand information about the world through two processes?
Schemas
What is the term for a new experience incorporated into an existing schema?
Assimilation
What happens when a new experience leads to the modification of an existing schema, or creation of a new schema?
Accommodation
What 4 sequential stages of cognitive development did Jean Piaget propose?
1) sensorimotor (0-2)
2) preoperational (2-7)
3) concrete operations (7-12)
4) formal operations (12+)
What stage of development accounts for infants gaining understanding of the world through their senses and motor activities?
Sensorimotor
What happens when infants recognize that objects out of sight continue to exist (happens at 6 months)
Object permanence
What stage of development did Jean Piaget class as 2-D thinking, characterized by developing symbolic function due to cognitive limitations?
Preoperational
What is the inability to understand another’s perspective?
Egocentrism
What is the belief that objects have feelings and consciousness?
Animism
What is the belief that environmental events are human inventions?
Artificialism
What distinguishes concrete operational stage of development?
Uses logic but only for concrete, tangible, observable events
What is the term for understanding that changing the form of a substance doesn’t change its amount, volume or mass?
Conservation
What is the term for focusing on more than one dimension of a problem?
Decentration
What is the term for understanding that some things can be restored to their previous condition?
Reversibility
What is the stage of development when adolescents can apply logical thought to abstract, verbal and hypothetical situations and problems in the past, present and future?
Formal operations
What is Leo Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory?
Emphasizes cognitive development being influenced by the child’s culture and interactions with elders
What refers to the skills and abilities that a child can learn with assistance?
Zone of Proximal Development
What involves strategies that help the child as they learn to master a new skill?
Scaffolding
Which psychologist focused on social processes being important in cognitive development?
Vygotsky
Which theory regards the teacher-learner relationship as relevant?
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory
What does adolescent egocentrism entail?
Capable of abstract and hypothetical thinking, but show a type of egocentrism
What is the belief that people are as concerned with adolescent’s thoughts and behavior as the adolescent is?
Imaginary audience
What is the belief that adolescent’s feelings and ideas are special and unique and that the adolescent is invulnerable?
Personal fable
What represents one’s lifetime of intellectual achievement, shown largely through vocabulary and knowledge of world affairs (age-resistant)?
Crystallized intelligence
What is the mental flexibility demonstrated by the ability to process information rapidly, and declines with age?
Fluid intelligence
What is a progressive brain disease that disrupts memory and thinking skills, characterized by memory, language, and problem solving?
Alzheimer’s
What is the most common form of dementia?
Alzheimer’s
What is a syndrome that affects cognitive functioning, causing social, language, physical and emotional impairments?
Dementia
What psychologist used a Moral Dilemma story to explore the reasoning of right and wrong?
Lawrence Kohlberg
What are Kohlberg’s levels and stages of moral reasoning?
Preconventional, conventional, and postconventional
What level of behavior bases judgment of right and wrong on resulting consequences?
Preconventional
What level of behavior bases judgment on conformity to conventional standards of right and wrong?
Conventional
What level of behavior bases judgment on need to maintain social order, personal conscience and abstract principles of right and wrong?
Postconventional
What does research suggest about moral reasoning?
Follows a sequence, but is influenced by environment
What is the feminist perspective, from Carol Gilligan, on moral development?
Girls use a morality of care and boys use a morality of justice
What has research found contrary to the feminist perspective?
Both males and females use justice-based and care-based reasoning in their moral dilemmas
Which psychologist is known for his theory on social development of human beings, and for the term identity crisis?
Erik Erickson
Which psychologist proposed 8 psychosocial stages that influence our development?
Erik Erikson
What are the unique, contradictory developmental tasks associated with each stage of psychosocial development?
Ego conflict
Which psychologist suggested that individuals must resolve a conflict prior to progressing successfully through later psychosocial stages throughout the life span?
Erik Erikson
What happens when individuals fail to resolve conflicts and thus stop progressing through stages of development?
Identity crisis
What are the 8 stages of psychosocial development?
1) trust vs mistrust
2) autonomy vs shame and doubt
3) initiative vs guilt
4) industry vs inferiority
5) identity vs role confusion
6) intimacy vs isolation
7) generativity vs stagnation
8) integrity vs despair
Which psychologist discovered the attachment theory in monkeys as well as humans?
Harry Harlow
Which psychologist is known for her work in early emotional attachment of children through her study The Strange Situation
Mary Ainsworth
What did Mary Ainsworth’s study consist of?
Examining mother-child interaction after separation and upon reunion, especially child’s reaction after separation
Which psychologist discovered the Attachment theory?
Mary Ainsworth
What 4 patterns occur in the attachment theory?
1) Securely attached - eagerly seek reattachment
2) avoidant attachment - actively avoid contact, ignore and show little affection
3) resistant attachment - displays anger and pushes away
4) disorganized/disoriented attachment - tend to look away, appear depressed
What qualities correlate with infant attachment?
1) Sociability
2) self-esteem
3) better relationships with siblings
4) dependency (less clingy with teachers and adults)
5) less tantrums and aggressive behavior
6) compliance and good deportment
7) empathy
8) behavioural problems
9) problem solving
Who argued that attachment is an instinct that occurs at a critical period of development in humans and animals?
Konrad Lorenz
What did Diana Baumrind’s research show about parenting style and child development?
Connection between parenting style and child’s instrumental competence (ability to manipulate environment to achieve one’s goals)
What 4 aspects of family functioning did Diana Baumrind’s work focus on?
1) warmth or nurturance
2) level of expectations
3) clarity and consistency of rules
4) communication between parent and child
What is the authoritarian style of parenting?
Low in nurturing and communication, high in control and maturity demands
What is the authoritative style of parenting?
High in nurturance, maturity demands, control and communication
What is the permissive style of parenting?
High in nurturance and low in maturity demands, control, and communication
What is uninvolved parenting?
low in nurturance, maturity demands, control and communication
Who described the social and emotional turbulence that adolescents face as “storm and stress”
G. Stanley Hall
What happens to an adolescent’s relationship with parents?
Desire for more independence
Which adults report the highest level of well-being?
Married couples
Where do the highest incidents of divorce occur?
Teenage and pregnant bride marriages
What is the least satisfying period of time in marriage for a woman?
Child rearing
What is occupational identity?
Identification with one’s work (all consuming and fragment a family)
What are the stages of death?
1) denial and isolation
2) anger
3) bargaining
4) depression
5) acceptance
