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Intro to Psychology > Chapter 5 - Learning > Flashcards

Chapter 5 - Learning Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the definition of learning?

A

A relatively permanent change in behaviour, knowledge, capability, or attitude that is acquired through experience. Can’t be attributed to illness, injury or maturation

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2
Q

What do behaviorist’s focus on in learning?

A

The study of observable behaviour

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3
Q

What do cognitive psychologists suggest about learning?

A

People choose whether or not to imitate observed behaviours

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4
Q

What are the two types of learning?

A

1) Classical conditioning

2) Operant conditioning

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5
Q

What is classical conditioning?

A

Learning by association (associate one event with another)

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6
Q

What was Ivan Pavlov’s contribution to the study of learning?

A
  • Discovered classical conditioning with his experiments with dogs
  • awarded Nobel Peace prize
  • he happened upon principles of conditioning while studying salivation in dogs
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7
Q

What are the principles of classical conditioning?

A

1) stimulus
2) neutral stimulus
3) unconditioned stimulus
4) conditioned stimulus
5) unconditioned response
6) conditioned response

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8
Q

What is a stimulus?

A

Any event or object in the environment to which an organism responds

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9
Q

What is a neutral stimulus?

A

Any stimulus that fails to get a natural response

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10
Q

What is the orienting reflex?

A

An unlearned response in which an organism attends to a stimulus

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11
Q

What is an unconditioned stimulus?

A

Any stimulus that gets a response from an organism naturally
E.g. dog salivating in response to food

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12
Q

What is an unconditioned response?

A

An unlearned response to an unconditioned stimulus

E.g. smells or sees food and salivates

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13
Q

What is a conditioned stimulus?

A

Previously neutral stimulus that elicits a conditioned response because it has been paired repeatedly with the stimulus the naturally elicits that response

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14
Q

What is extinction?

A

Occurs when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus
E.g. dog stops doing trick when you stop rewarding

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15
Q

What is spontaneous recovery?

A

Sometimes occurs when, after extinction, the conditioned stimulus is presented and the conditioned response reappears (Generally weaker and shorter in duration)

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16
Q

What is generalization?

A

Occurs when the stimulus, similar to the conditioned stimulus, elicits the conditioned response
E.g. similar noise, colours

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17
Q

What is discrimination?

A

Occurs when the conditioned response is made only to the conditioned stimulus and not to any other similar stimuli
E.g. not a b-note, not a d-note.. only a c-note

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18
Q

What was John B. Watson’s contribution to classical conditioning?

A

Said humans are shaped solely by environment

Leader of revolutionary movement in psychology called Behaviorism

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19
Q

Who is known as the father of behaviorism?

A

John B. Watson

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20
Q

What did John B. Watson discover to be the phases of conditioning fear with Little Albert?

A

1) no fear of white rat initially
2) fear of loud noise
3) white rat and noise together
4) association of loud noise, which caused fear of white rat
5) fear of white rat alone

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21
Q

Who carried on John B. Watsons work?

A

Mary Cover Jones

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22
Q

What are the factors influencing classical conditioning?

A

1) # of pairing of the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus
2) intensity of the unconditioned stimulus
3) how reliably the conditioned stimulus predicts the unconditioned stimulus (all the time or just sometimes)
4) temporal relationship between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus (how frequently/quickly you present reward)

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23
Q

What are examples of classical conditioning in everyday life?

A

1) taste aversion
2) fears and phobias
3) superstitions
4) drug use and tolerance

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24
Q

Who is seen as a great authority on operant conditioning?

A

B. F. Skinner

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25
Q

What did B.F. Skinner discover about operant conditioning?

A

Useful in conditioning complex behaviours.
It’s a form of learning in which the consequences of behaviour are manipulated, this either increases or decreases the frequency of a response, or can shape an entirely new set of responses

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26
Q

What is reinforcement?

A

Occurs when a behaviour is repeated because of the consequence that followed it

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27
Q

What is positive reinforcement?

A

Involves adding a pleasant consequence to an action to increase the probability of the action being continued
(Praise, prize)

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28
Q

What is negative reinforcement?

A

Involves the removal of something unpleasant and results in the increase of the probability of the action occurring again (taking excedrin and Pepsi for a headache)

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29
Q

What is a reinforcer?

A

Anything that follows a response that increases the likelihood that the responsible occur again in the future

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30
Q

What is higher order conditioning?

A

This occurs when a previously neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus

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31
Q

What was the operant chamber called designed by Skinner?

A

The “Skinner Box”

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32
Q

What is operant behaviour?

A

Involuntary responses that are reinforced

33
Q

How did Skinner use reinforcement?

A

Train pigeons as a missile guidance system during WWII

34
Q

What is punishment?

A

An aversive event or unpleasant stimulus that suppresses or decreases the frequency of the behaviour it follows

35
Q

What is negative punishment?

A

Occurs when there is a type of punishment involving the removal of a pleasant stimulus

36
Q

What is a positive punishment?

A

Type of punishment that involves the presentation of an unpleasant stimulus

37
Q

What are three factors in order for punishment to be effective?

A

1) timing - applied immediately following misbehaviour
2) intensity - punishment should not exceed crime
3) applied every time the misbehaviour occurs

38
Q

What is a discriminative stimulus?

A

In operant conditioning, a stimulus that indicates whether reinforcement are punishment will follow (the look on Dad’s face showing he’s angry)

39
Q

What is avoidance learning?

A

Involves engaging in behaviours to avoid an aversive consequence

40
Q

What is a primary reinforcer?

A

A reinforcer that fills a basic physical need for survival and does not depend on learning (e.g. working for food or shelter alone to survive)

41
Q

What is a secondary reinforcer?

A

A secondary reinforcer is required or learned by association with other reinforcers (working for money and what it can buy)

42
Q

What did Martin Seligman discover about learning?

A

Learned Helplessness
- a passive resignation to aversive conditions learned by repeated exposure to aversive events, which are perceived inescapable and/or unavoidable

43
Q

What is the human application of learned helplessness?

A

Abuse victims

44
Q

What is shaping?

A

A procedure for teaching complex behaviours that reinforces approximation of desired behaviour (one step at a time)

45
Q

What is successive approximations?

A

Behaviours that are progressively closer to a target behaviour

46
Q

What is Edward Thorndike’s “law of effect”?

A

States that behaviours that are followed by pleasant consequences will be more likely to be repeated in the future

47
Q

What is continuous reinforcement?

A

Occurs when each correct response is reinforced

48
Q

What is partial reinforcement?

A

Occurs when the correct responses are reinforced randomly

49
Q

What is a fixed ratio?

A

Reinforcement given after a fixed number of correct responses (e.g. reward after every 3rd or 5th response)

50
Q

What is a variable ratio?

A

Reinforcement given after a very number of correct responses (random and unpredictable rewards that happen anytime)
- the most resilient type of reinforcement schedule

51
Q

What is fixed interval?

A

Reinforcement given after a specific time interval has passed
(E.g. being paid every two weeks for your work)

52
Q

What is a variable interval?

A

Reinforcement given after a very long amount of time

E.g. being paid at random after various amounts of time

53
Q

What are the different schedules of reinforcement?

A

1) Continuous reinforcement
2) partial reinforcement
3) fixed ratio
4) Variable ratio
5) Fixed interval
6) Variable interval

54
Q

What is the most resilient type of reinforcement schedule?

A

Variable ratio

55
Q

What is an example of a token economy?

A

Prison systems
- providing privileges
- withholding privileges
Often this is lost shortly after the incentives are removed or after the individual leaves the institutional environment

56
Q

What did E.C. Tolman discover about Latent learning?

A

Forming cognitive maps

- showing the learning can occur in the absence of reinforcement

57
Q

What is Robert Rescolas’ contingency theory?

A

Proposes that learning occurs when stimuli provide information about the likelihood of the occurrence of other stimuli (Conditioned stimulus provides information about the unconditioned stimulus)

58
Q

What is Albert Bandura’s contribution?

A

Went from Behaviourism into cognitive psychology (social-cognitive learning)
- Argued that one controlling, altering, or correcting behaviour of others, reinforcements or inducements must be anchored to a sustained metaphor

59
Q

What is Albert Bandura particularly noted for?

A

His work with the Bobo doll experiment and studied patterns of behaviour associated with agression. He demonstrated the week and acquire knowledge and skills by observational learning - observing the behaviour of others rather than by means of direct experience

60
Q

What are conditions for affective modelling to take place according to Bandura?

A

Attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation

61
Q

What are we said to be when when we see modelled behaviour being reinforced?

A

Vicariously reinforced

62
Q

What did Bandura say about the aggression of children?

A

Children exposed to aggression or are more likely to act physically aggressive than those who are not

63
Q

What is Bandura’s stance on effects of violence in the media?

A

In a classic experiment Bandura showed how aggressive adult models are imitated by children. Observing and violence and aggression in the media tends to be glamorized

64
Q

When Bandura compared alive aggressive model, filmed human violence, cartoon violence, and control group, which situation lead children to act more aggressively?

A

Filmed human violence

65
Q

Which situation would lead children to act more aggressively - TV or video game?

A

Video game

66
Q

What did Craig A Anderson say about media influences on modelling violence and aggression?

A

He argues that studies show media violence is a risk factor for increasing emotional arousal aggressive behaviour and violent thoughts

67
Q

What does Jonathan Freedman learn about media influences on modelling violence and aggression?

A

He maintained that research does not demonstrate the media violence produces violence. There is no evidence that links this aggression to criminal violence or other delinquent behaviour

68
Q

What are implications of learning theories?

A
  • learning theories can explain both consistency and change in behavior
  • they tend to be optimistic about the possibility of changing behavior
  • they give an accurate picture of the way many behaviours are learned
  • this approach is not developmental, it does not tell us much about age related changes
69
Q

Many advertisers tried to sell products by associating them with rugged images or famous athletes. By pairing their products with these favourable stimuli, the advertisers are attempting to use ________.

A

Classical conditioning

70
Q

Why are we highly likely to stop our vehicles at a red light?

A

We have learned to associate stopping at a red light with avoiding accidents

71
Q

What do we call a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs because of experience?

A

Learning

72
Q

Coach Pilsner’s college basketball team has won two conference championships during her four years as a head coach. On both occasions she happen to be wearing her plaid vest with the Lethbridge college crest. Now on the night of every important game, she wears her plied vest. Coach Pilsner is engaging in _________.

A

Superstitious behaviour

73
Q

Which of the following refers to the tenancy for an organism to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do NOT predict an unconditioned stimulus

A

Discrimination

74
Q

According to Bandura’s research, how can we learn?

A

Through observational learning

75
Q

Ideally, what happens to the frequency of a behaviour following a punishment?

A

The behaviour becomes less frequent

76
Q

Psychologist John Watson condition fear in a little boy named Albert by presenting a white rat at the same time is a loud clanging sound. What was the conditioned stimulus in this scenario?

A

A white rat

77
Q

Miss Smith often raises her voice in a class when students misbehave and, as a result, unintentionally confers hero status on those kids in the classroom. What learning process is likely occurring?

A

Reinforcement

78
Q

Classical conditioning was most thoroughly research by _______.

A

Ivan Pavlov

Intro to Psychology (14 decks)

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