Chapter 8 Flashcards
If changes in identity occur throughout the life cycle, why have researchers who are interested in identity development paid so much attention to adolescence?
- the changes in identity that take place during adolescence involve the first substantial reorganization and restructuring of the individual’s sense of self at a time when he or she has the intellectual capability to appreciate fully just how significant the changes are
- fundamental biological, cognitive, and social changes characteristic of the period.
Brain-imaging studies find that patterns of brain activity during tasks in which individuals are asked to think about themselves differ significantly between adolescents and adults how
there is evidence that adolescents exert more conscious, deliberate effort when asked to think about themselves than adults do, who seem to do this more effortlessly
adolescence is a time of important decisions about school, work, relationships, and the future. Facing these decisions about their place in society does more than provoke adolescents to ask questions about who they are and where they are headed—it … asking them.
necessitates
Identity development is better understood as one single development
f Identity development is better understood as a series of interrelated developments—rather than one single development
Neuroimaging studies show that adolescents’ self-conceptions may be particularly sensitive to the …
opinions of others
Self-conceptions continue to become more psychological well into the high school years, although this may be more characteristic of adolescents growing up in cultures like the United States, why
where teenagers tend to focus on their feelings and social life
The proportion of adolescents who give opposite traits in self-descriptions, who feel conflicts over such discrepancies, and who feel confused over such discrepancies increases markedly between … grades and then declines somewhat
seventh and ninth
delinquent adolescents might dread becoming criminals, for instance, they may not have a positive ideal self why is this a problem
don’t balance the fear with optimism
who inmost likely to least likely to get adol false self behaviour parents friends dates
dates and classmates = most
parents
friends
some adolescents engage in false-self behavior because they have low self-esteem but not the other way around
f , and whereas others experience a drop in self-esteem because they knowingly put on a false front.
..3 are more likely to engage in false-self behavior
adolescents who report less emotional support from parents and peers, who have low self-esteem, and who are relatively less satisfied with life
As self-conceptions become more …2, they become more interested in understanding their own personalities and motivations
abstract, and as young people become more able to see themselves in psychological terms
delinquent adolescents are more likely than their peers to score high in … and low in … (5 factor)
extraversion and low in agreeableness and conscientiousness
adolescents who are high achievers in school score high in …2
conscientiousness and openness
There is a temporary drop in … during early adolescence, “which appears to be the lifetime peak of meanness, laziness, and closed-mindedness”
maturity
during adol to young adulthood as they mature, they become more …4
conscientious, more agreeable, more resilient, and more emotionally stable
by the end of adolescence, there are few gender differences in maturity
t but females mature faster
The rate of change in personality begins to slow during the …
early 20s
adolescence is a time of “rebirth,”
f research does not show that adolescence is a time of tumultuous upheaval in personality.
he “storm and stress” of adolescence creates problems in self-esteem
f there isn’t a dramatic drop in self-esteem at`
this age, adolescents’ feelings about themselves fluctuate from day to day, particularly during the early adolescent years
excessively high self-esteem characteristic of today’s teenagers
f
Asking whether self-esteem changes during adolescence (whether people’s view of themselves becomes more positive or negative) is not the same as asking whether self-esteem is stable during this period why
stability is whether individuals with high self-esteem as children are likely to have high self-esteem as adolescents
children are usually in a more positive mood than young adolescents, who are generally in a better mood than older adolescents
t but levels off at age 16
Teenagers who experience frequent fluctuations in mood also report higher levels of ..2.
anxiety and depression
Fluctuations in adolescents’ self-image are most likely to occur between the ages of …
12 and 14
12 and 14 why more fluctuations
This is a time of major changes in brain systems that regulate how we think about ourselves and others
the differences between preadolescents and early or middle adolescents are smaller than those between younger and older adolescents
f which indicates that the most marked fluctuations in self-image occur during the transition into adolescence, rather than over the course of adolescence itself
Does it seem to you that early and middle adolescents are a little obsessed with taking “selfies”?
t
The extent to which an individual’s self-esteem is volatile is itself a stable trait what does this mean
those who fluctuate a lot early on will do the same thing later
Young adolescents with the most volatile self-image report the highest levels of …3
anxiety, tension, and adjustment problems `
which adol have more stable and high SE and life satisfaction
adolescents with better family and peer relationships are more likely than their peers to maintain positive self-esteem or develop enhanced self-esteem over time
the brains of adolescents with relatively higher self-esteem differ how
tend to have stronger connections between areas of the brain that regulate how we think about ourselves and areas that control feelings of reward
which SE matters most
global
Do some aspects of self-esteem contribute more to an adolescent’s overall self-image than others?
yes
which SE most important
physical than social
adol admit physical appearance most important to SE
f adolescents are often unaware of the degree to which their self-worth is based on their feelings about their appearance
why girls are more likely than boys to experience self-image difficulties and depression.?
Physical self-esteem is a more important influence on overall self-esteem among girls than boys
Early adolescent girls’ self-esteem is lower, their degree of self-consciousness is higher, and their self-image is shakier than is the case for boys.
t
who attend single-sex schools have lower self-esteem than those who go to coeducational ones
f higher
although sex differences in adolescent self-esteem, favoring males, are found all over the world, the gap is wider in wealthy, developed nations than in poor, developing ones, perhaps because …
more affluent societies place a greater emphasis on physical appearance
adolescents’ life satisfaction is higher—among both boys and girls—in countries that have higher levels of gender equity
t
Asian American adolescents have particularly low self-esteem relative to their peers why?
, a finding that some researchers have attributed to higher rates of peer rejection
does approval of significant others or society matter more
the approval of significant others is an especially powerful influence on adolescents’ self-esteem—much more so than the opinion of the broader society
Ethnic differences in self-esteem, favoring Black adolescents, have increased over the past 25 years and are greater during adolescence than childhood why
(perhaps because ethnic identity has become a more relevant issue in society)
perhaps because ethnic identity is a more salient issue during adolescence than before
is desegregation good in schools
Adolescents who attend schools in which they are in the ethnic minority may suffer greater self-esteem problems than their peers who attend schools in which they are in the majority
may have a positive impact on minority adolescents’ academic achievement,
One explanation for the increase in problem behavior that takes place over the course of adolescence is that …
adolescents tend to look relatively more to their peers for social support as they get older
High self-esteem during adolescence does enhance adolescents’ well-being, however, whereas low self-esteem may lead to mental health problems, both in the short run and well into adulthood- why not more interventions for SE then
this may be due to the fact that many of the same factors that contribute to high self-esteem in adolescence (such as achievement) are themselves stable over time and correlated with self-esteem at later ages
the course of identity development varies over different historical eras, in different cultures, and among different subcultures within the same society why
If the adolescent’s identity is forged out of a recognition on the part of society, society will play an important role in determining which sorts of identities are possible alternatives. And of those identities that are genuine options, society will influence which are desirable and which aren’t.
The more alternatives available to the young person and the more arenas in which decisions must be made, the less difficult establishing a sense of identity will be
f more
does Erickson think adol should experiment dif identities ?
According to theorists such as Erik Erikson, having the time and freedom to experiment with different roles is an important prelude to establishing a coherent sense of identity
The likelihood of going through a prolonged and difficult identity crisis is probably greater today, and more prevalent around the world, than it has ever been. why
so much choice across domains e.g. career and family
parents should be worried if their teens go through many identity phases
f normal experimentation
Without a …, a full and thorough exploration of the options and available alternatives cannot occur, and identity development will be impeded
moratorium
Do youngsters who cannot afford a psychosocial moratorium fail to resolve the identity crisis?
f Erickson would say The price these youngsters pay is not the failure to develop a sense of identity but lost potential
Is establishing a sense of identity something that is conscious?
According to Erikson, it is. It is experienced as a sense of well-being, a feeling of “being at home in one’s body,”
Establishing a coherent sense of identity takes a long time
t into young adulthood
how many identity crisis do each youth go through
a series of crises that may concern different aspects of the young person’s identity and that may surface—and resurface—at different points in time throughout the adolescent and young-adult years.
…” is the right word, because research shows that individuals move from …, and not necessarily in an orderly fashion
“state
do different personality constellations led to different patterns of identity development or, alternatively, whether different patterns of identity development influenced subsequent personality.
unclear but the former explanation (that personality affects identity development) seems more likely than the latter
does seem that becoming an adult, at least in industrialized society, is as much a .. transition as it is one defined by entering the formal roles of adulthood, such as beginning a career or setting up one’s own household
psychological
being unsure if you’ve reached adulthood is good because you accept uncertainty
f less likely to achieve sense of identity bcs
Being “in charge” of one’s life may be especially important in contemporary industrialized society, where the transition to adulthood is prolonged and individuals are faced with a tremendous number of identity-related decisions
Most research indicates that the chief period for identity development is in .., when many individuals are enrolled in college
late adolescence
What sorts of parenting practices are associated with different identity states?
authoritative
the absence of parental warmth is associated with problems in …—the most extreme case being identity diffusion—whereas the absence of parental encouragement of individuality is associated with …
making commitments
difficulties in exploration
a coherent sense of identity generally is not established before age …, let alone earlier in adolescence, as originally theorized
18 especially for boys
the proportion of individuals who are in a state of identity achievement before late adolescence is low
t
Although self-examination may take place throughout adolescence, the consolidation of a coherent sense of identity does not begin until very late in the period
differences in identity status are most frequently observed between groups in the …-year-old range.
18- to 21
training individuals to think more about how specific life events had played a role in their development helps idneittiy devel
f
foreclosure may be a temporary stage rather than a permanent one
t individuals who looked like they had foreclosed the identity development process were in the midst of an identity crisis 4 years later
… of the adolescents who were classified as identity achieved at the first assessment were not classified this way 4 years later.
half
How could some individuals who at one point had apparently resolved their identity crisis actually not have resolved it—at least, not in any final sense?
The achievement of a sense of identity in adolescence is not a final state, but a step on a long route toward the establishment of a mature sense of self.
does post sec lead to identity devel
identity achieved increases from around 20% during freshman year to as many as 40% by senior year but could be maturation or other factors that brought them to college
when is ethnic identity integrated
late adol
many White adolescents, especially those from more …, identify strongly with a particular ethnic group (such as German, Irish, Italian) and derive part of their overall sense of self from this identification
working-class backgrounds
White adolescents are less likely than Black, Latino, or Asian adolescents to explore their ethnic identity or feel a strong commitment to it
t
Among immigrant adolescents, there is considerable vacillation between identifying oneself as a member of .. or ,…
as well as variability in definitions of how best to maintain an identity that merges being a member of one’s ethnic group and being a member of the country into which the family has immigrated
a broad ethnic category (e.g., Latino, Asian) and identifying oneself as a member of a group defined by one’s country of origin (e.g., Mexican, Chinese)
Germany and other European or Middle Eastern countries) who labeled themselves as German or partly German (e.g., Turkish-German) were more likely to be chosen as friends by German-born youth does this happen in America
unsure
exploration … can also lead to distress, perhaps because at an early age it is harder to make sense of everything one discovers
very early in adolescence
Frequent contact with peers from the same ethnic group leads adolescents to develop stronger positive feelings about their ethnicity although this benefit is more likely to occur among adolescents who attend schools where …
they are part of a small ethnic minority
cons and pros of school with only one ethnic group
more ethnic pride less orientation toward mainstream culture= biculturalism
should adol be aware of racism
fine line awareness of racism is associated with better achievement, but mistrust is associated with doing more poorly in school
American adolescents of Iranian descent revealed that many of these teenagers identified themselves as Persian, rather than Iranian, because…
of the negative portrayals of Iranian individuals in the media
The experience of feeling discriminated against adversely affects adolescents’ mental health when discriminated against what
regardless of what they attribute the discrimination to
One recent study of Black youth found that the combination of experiencing discrimination and growing up in a less supportive family environment actually affected adolescents’ ..
.DNA and inflammatory responses in a way that is associated with faster aging
Growing up in a … neighborhood especially intensifies feelings of discrimination, which increases adolescents’ involvement in violence
racially isolated, poor
Individuals vary both in the extent to which they feel discriminated against and in the extent to which they are adversely affected by it, and it appears that … is an important factor
ethnic identity
Generally speaking, during adolescence ,… increases and … tends to remain stable, but changes in public regard differ among adolescents from different backgrounds
racial centrality
private regard
Having a strong ethnic identity appears to protect against this when the discrimination comes from .., but when the discrimination comes from …, whose opinions about race and ethnicity are especially salient during adolescenceeven those with a strong ethnic identity come to believe that their ethnic group is viewed negatively
adults
peers
sensitive to racial cues, which, in turn, may heighten their experience of discrimination; this process may be accentuated in families where parents engage in relatively more ..
ethnic socialization
the impact of having race as a central part of one’s identity (which is not the same thing as having high private regard for one’s ethnic group) is complicated: It makes adolescents …, but some studies show that it makes them more …
more sensitive to discrimination (which hurts their mental health)
able to cope with it (which helps)
how does positive public racial regard hurt and help
Believing that the public has high regard for one’s ethnic group lifts adolescents’ school performance, but believing that the public has a positive view of one’s race also intensifies the effects of discrimination
…% of all infants with a Black parent were born to one Black parent and one White parent, and …% of all infants with an Asian parent were born to one Asian parent and one White parent
17
34
there is not a strong connection between sexual orientation and sex-role behavior or gender identity
t
homosexual individuals are confused about their identity
f individuals with homosexual or bisexual preferences are generally not confused about their gender identity—or, at least, they are no more confused than are individuals with heterosexual preferences.
common steps to devel of LGBT recognition
engaging in gender-atypical behavior, being attracted to members of the same sex and uninterested in those of the other sex, realizing one’s sexual attraction to others of the same sex, and consciously questioning one’s sexual orientation
Resolving concerns about identity, intimacy, and sexuality present formidable challenges for many teenagers. But these challenges may be exacerbated for sexual-minority adolescents, who are forced to deal with these issues without ..
.the same degree of social support as their heterosexual peers
transgender individuals report the same variety of sexual orientations as do other individuals.
t
One recent report estimates that about 1 in… American adults are transsexual women (individuals who identify themselves as women but who were labeled as male at birth) and 1 in … are transsexual men (individuals who identify themselves as men but who were labeled as female at birth)
100,000
400,000
… of transgender teenagers reported suicidal ideation, a rate that is twice as high as that of their peers
one-third
Many experts believe that we should view gender identity, sexual orientation, and gender-role behavior as … rather than ..
.fluid rather than fixed, and as points along continua rather than absolute categories
differences…groups of males or females are far more substantial than differences between them.
within
dif in male and female abilities
physical strength girls more people oriented boys things oriented dif expressions of agression intimacy females more prone to low SE and dep
how do males and females differ in intimacy
females are more likely to express intimacy verbally, whereas males express it mainly through shared activities
Adolescents are more intolerant about variations in sexual orientation than about about peers behaving in gender-atypical ways than they are
f other way around
The higher rates of mental health problems reported by gay and lesbian teenagers may be due to …
the higher likelihood of gender-role nonconformity found among sexual-minority youth gender conforming gays less victimized
although people tend to become more traditional in their attitudes about gender roles between early and middle adolescence, this pattern is not universal.
t
Do more feminine girls and more masculine boys feel better about themselves? how does it differ for boys or girls
Although boys and girls who behave in gender-typical ways are more accepted than their peers whose behavior does not conform with gender-role stereotypes and feel better about themselves as a result of this the costs of being gender-atypical are greater for boys than girls
Girls who believe that women’s worth comes primarily from their sexual appeal aren’t any less intelligent
f earn lower grades and score worse on achievement tests than their peers.
girls who have highly sexualized Facebook photos are judged by other girls to be less competent—and less physically and socially attractive—than girls whose profiles are not as explicitly sexy
t
why is it that boys suffer greater self-image problems when they deviate from what is viewed as appropriate behavior for their sex?
although girls may be pressured to adopt (or maintain) certain feminine traits during adolescence, they are not necessarily pressured to relinquish all elements of masculinity.
more pressure to act stereotypically
In other words, girls can be highly pressured during adolescence to behave in feminine ways but
without necessarily being punished or labeled deviant for exhibiting some masculine traits
boys gender-role socialization intensifies during adolescence compared to girls
f Their gender-role socialization does not intensify during adolescence as much as it does for girls because it is so intense to begin with.
3 reasons identity is an adol issue
cognitive changes
puberty
social changes
3 approaches to understand identity development
changes in
self conception
self esteem
sense of identity
why puberty influence identity
changes outside force them to question changes on inside
cognitive changes of adol impact on identity?
being able to think about multiple selves: possible selves (future selves)
LT consequence= future orientation
social changes of adol impact on identity?
opens up choices and decisions to them
what is self conception
the way the individual thinks about and characterizes themselves= personal traits and attributes
what are the changes during adol in self conceptions
content and structure of self conceptions = more abstract (personality rather than concrete attributes)
differentiated (expressed in dif ways in dif situations) and organized (logical coherent whole)
3 ways adol organize self concept
actual self
ideal self
feared self
changes in self conceptions: how does this influence authentic self
differentiated between authentic vs false self
T: acting in a way no one knows is fake
false self
when do we see false selves most often and least often
dating situations
least likely around friends (used to please others or they devalue true self)
how do we study personality in adol
five factor model (successfully extended to adol even though desired for adults)
delinquent adol score high and low on what
high extro
Low C and A
what causes big 5 traits in adol
combo of enviro and genetic factors
big 5 are stable across development
t due to temperament
but is some change
what change in big 5 over devel
less extroverted more C A and resilient and emotionally stable
how stable are the big 5 across development
stable
what causes big 5
Influenced by combination of genetic and environmental factors.
developmental changes in SE
not a dramatic drop in SE but tend to Daily fluctuations especially during early adol
from age 14 (middle adol- early adulthood) onwards SE…
stabilizes
why stability of SE in middle adol
feelings about self consolidated, less fluctuation in response to situations
Problems in self-image may appear briefly in …
early adolescence
brief issues of self image in early adol ? 3 parts of self image
Self-esteem
Self-consciousness
Self-image stability
T: how negatively or positively they feel about themselves
SE
T: how much they worry about self image
self consciousness
T: how much they feel their self image changes
self image stability
n Self-esteem
n Self-consciousness n Self-image stability how are these in early adol
low SE high SC and shakiest stability
Fluctuations in self-image during early adolescence probably
due to several factors: 3
n Egocentrism (imaginary audience, personal fable)
n More socially active
n More emphasis on peers’ opinions of them.
Components of Self-Esteem: how variable ?
very! e.g. high school SE low attractiveness SE
which components of SE most predictive of overall SE
physical self-esteem, self-esteem about relationships
Some dimensions of self-esteem contribute more to an adolescent’s overall self-esteem than others
group differences in SE?
sex, ethnic differences
gender differ in SE?
girls lower on average and physical SE more predictive of overall SE
ethnic differences in SE
African American higher SE while higher than hispanic and asian
if minority in school greatest SE problems (differ from norm)
antecedents of high self esteem
success in school, social approval, social support
antecedents of low self esteem
peer approval
what else comes with peer approval SE
risk of emotional and behavioural problems and poorer school achievement
having a high SE means you will succeed in academics
f doesn’t work in reverse
how does Erik eriksons think we develop a sense of identity
individuals move through 8 psychosocial changes or crisis (things they have to overcome) each building on previous one. Adol have to solve identity vs identity diffusion crisis. reflect on place in society and how they are viewed by others
Erik: how to resolve identity crisis
depends on how they interact with other people, responding to reactions others have of them choose which become apart of identity. Mutual recognition of self between individual and society
Erik: how to resolve identity crisis
depends on how they interact with other people, responding to reactions others have of them choose which become apart of identity. Mutual recognition of self between individual and society
The Social Context of Identity Development how does culture influence
differs over historical periods, geography and even subcultures within societies
(Course of identity development varies by culture and historical era.)
why is period of identity crisis longer today than in history
The more available alternatives, the more difficult it is to establish a sense of identity.
Because of these complications, adolescents may need a period of time to figure out identity before entering adult roles= exploration :T
Psychosocial moratorium
how does Erickson think adol should be spent to help identity devel
exploring, commitment and responsibilities can hamper development
what is the Psychosocial moratorium
“Time out” from excessive responsibilities and obligations.
what is done during Psychosocial moratorium
Experiment with different roles and pick and choose which fits
Psychosocial moratorium seen crossculturally?
Luxury of the affluent if introspection interferes with survival.
identity is tied to survival= work to survive for some
3 common problems in identity development as defined by Erikson
n Identity diffusion
n Identity foreclosure n Negative identity
T: an incoherent disjointed incomplete sense of self from mild (not knowing who one is) to sever (condition)
identity diffusion
T: bypass exploration and experimentation altogether
identity foreclosure (premature commitment)
T: some adol select an identity that is undesirable
negative identity
why negative identity?
would rather be somebody bad than nobody at all
T: the point in identity development process that characterizes an adol at any given time
identity status
Adapted from the work of James Marcia: Healthy identity development involves two important processes:
…2
commitment & exploration.
Based on an individual’s responses to questionnaire, he or she can be assigned to one of four identity states: 4
identity achievement n moratorium
n identity foreclosure n identity diffusion
high commitment and high exploration, commitment based on exploration so most optimal identity status :T
identity achievement
T: individual always exploring hasn’t committed to anything yet
moratorium
T: already made commitments not based on trail and error or exploration
foreclosure
T: hasn’t made commitments not interested in trying them out
identity diffusion
issues with studying/ measuring identity development longitudinally 3
- coherent sense of Identity generally not established before age 18.= goes against erikson identity crisis stage
- Individuals may move from one identity state to another, particularly during adolescent and young adult years not a systematic pattern
- not all settle on achieved identity not well understood of going between stages
Post-secondary edu. has what influence on identity development
may prolong psychosocial moratorium
different identity task with ethnic identity
Integrating a sense of ethnic identity into their overall sense of personal identity is often an important task of late adolescence
ethnic identity Unquestioning view of oneself is displaced or upset by a crisis. what triggers
prejudice triggers exploration (aware of groups underrepresentation or feel different from majority)
when one encounters prejudice, becomes aware of group’s underrepresentation in some activity or setting, or feels different from others with different backgrounds
t
Period of exploration ethnic after crisis? what influences
Strong influence of context (e.g., ethnic composition of peers, school, neighbourhood)
impact of residential schools on ethnic identity
Erodes cultural identity = discouraged any tied to indigene heritage
Pervasive discrimination continues to exists towards
Indigenous populations.- impact?
Disproportionately high rates of health and social problems.
Effect is exacerbated by discrimination
experiencing high levels of discrimination relates to conduct problems how
One pathway linking perceived discrimination to antisocial behavior is through the impact of discrimination on depression and alienation, which leads adolescents to affiliate with antisocial peers.
Multidimensional Model of Ethnic Identity States Three aspects of racial identity influence the effects of discrimination:
Racial centrality
Private regard
public regard
Public regard Adolescents who report experiencing high levels of discrimination suffer psychologically; however, these effects are influenced by …2
how much they feel discriminated against and the extent to which they are adversely affected by it.
T: how important race is in defining your identity
racial centrality
T: how you feel about being a member of your race
private regard
T: how you think other people view your race
public regard
Having …. is positively linked to psychological well-being and protects against the harmful effects of stress and discrimination.
positive feelings about one’s race
T: the process parents use to teach their children about their ethnic identity
ethnic socialization
Ethnic socialization may speed up identity development Focuses on three themes:
n Understanding and valuing one’s culture
Dealing with racism
n Succeeding in mainstream society as minority
Having a strong ethnic identity is consistently associated with …3`
higher self-esteem, stronger self-efficacy, and better mental health among minority adolescents.
T: Adolescents whose parents are not from the same ethnic or
racial group
multiethnic adol (understudied)
Developing consistent ethnic identity is challenging for multiethnic adolescents. which one do they end up sticking with?
Many change their racial identity over time.
often have ethnic identity that doesn’t match classmates perception
T: One’s sense of oneself as male, female, or transgender.
gender identity
T: Whether one is sexually attracted to individuals of the same sex, other sex, or both.
sexual orientation
T: The extent to which an individual behaviors in traditionally “masculine” or “feminine” ways.
gender role behaviour
what is the connection between gender role behaviour sexual orientation and gender identity
none! they are fluid not fixed. same variability in sexual orientation
except may be more vulnerable group (minority groups)
psychological differences about males and females
hardly any
Gender-role socialization
during adolescence?
Society holds beliefs about sex-appropriate behavior.
T: pressure to behave in sex stereotypic way
Gender Intensification Hypothesis
Gender Intensification Hypothesis during adol
increase during early to mid adol then Beliefs about gender roles become more flexible as individuals move through adolescence.
Environment vs biology- which has more impact on gender- role behavior
Environment has much stronger effect on gender- role behavior than biology.
gender typical adol vs atypical differences
atypical more victimization= mental health problems as a result
how stable is masculinity and felinity over time
highly stable
Boys and girls who behave in gender-typical ways are more … than their peers whose behavior is more gender- atypical.
accepted
the social costs of behaving in gender-atypical ways are greater for .. than ..
.males than females.
However, the social costs of behaving in gender-atypical ways are greater for males than females. why
Girls “allowed” to behave masculine but boys are strongly discouraged from displaying any traditional feminine traits.
problems associated with gender atypical boys
lower SE, judged more deviant, more likely to be bullied
