CH 2 Cognitive transitions Flashcards
1
Q
Compared to children, adolescents thinking is more sophisticated in their ability to:
A
(1) Think about possibilities.
(2) Think about abstract concepts.
(3) Think about thinking. (4) Think in multiple dimensions.
(5) See knowledge as relative
2
Q
T: think about thinking
A
metacognition
3
Q
T: seeing knowledge as relative
A
relativism
4
Q
what are the ways children vs adolescences think about possibilities
A
children= concrete events adolescences= what might be
5
Q
T: not just thinking about what is but what might have been
A
counterfactual thinking
6
Q
Adolescents are able to move easily between the … and the … to generate alternative possibilities.
A
specific and the abstract
7
Q
(Thinking About Possibilities) T: A type of logical reasoning in which you draw logically necessary conclusions from a general set of premises, or givens.
A
deductive reasoning
8
Q
(Thinking About Possibilities)
T: “If-then” thinking
n Example: Playing devil’s advocate
A
hypothetical thinking
9
Q
adolescences cant suspend current beleifs to think of other perspectives
A
f they can
10
Q
what are some language skills adolescences begin to understand as a result of their Ability to comprehend higher-
order abstract logic 4
A
Puns, proverbs, metaphors, and analogies
11
Q
Improvements in social cognition during adolescence is directly related to improvements in the ability to …
A
think abstractly.
12
Q
understanding clever jokes is the result of what advancement to adolescences thinking
A
abstract concepts
13
Q
an adolescent takes an interest in politics as the result of what advancement
A
abstract concepts
14
Q
(thinking about thinking) adolescences Increased … allows them to think about their our own emotions.
A
introspection
15
Q
(thinking about thinking) Increased ….: thinking that others are thinking about us.
A
self-consciousness
16
Q
what are the 3 skills that come with metacognition
A
Monitoring one’s own cognitive activity during thinking
n Increased introspection: thinking about our own emotions.
n Increased self-consciousness: thinking that others are thinking about us.
17
Q
problem with metacognition
A
preoccupy self with what others are thinking
18
Q
does metacognition continue to improve in adulthood?
A
no levels off
19
Q
problems with introspection
A
self absorption
20
Q
what phenomena exemplifies adolescents egocentrism 2
A
imaginary audience phenomena
personal fable
21
Q
what is the imaginary audience phenomena
A
Believe that everyone is watching
n Behavior is the focus of other’s concern
22
Q
what is the personal fable
A
Experiences are unique
n Nothing bad can happen to them because they are special regardless of what happens to others
23
Q
“you’d never understand how I feel” what phenomena
A
personal fable
24
Q
problems with personal fable
A
risky behaviours (online sex behaviours- saw themselves as less vulnerable)
25
what arises from thinking in multiple dimensions
more sophisticated conception of self and relationships
| encourages understanding of sarcasm, satire and metaphors
26
T: Ability to view things from more than one aspect at a time
thinking in multiple dimensions
27
More sophisticated understanding of probability- what thinking advancement
multiple dimensions
28
children see things in absolute terms, how does this change in adolescences
see things relative to other things
29
Compared to children, adolescents are more likely to ....and less likely to accept “facts” as absolute truths.
question others’ assertions
30
problems with relativism
promote skepticism so Difficulties can arise between youth and their parents.
see parents opinions as just their perspective that can be questioned
31
2 important theoretical perspectives on cognitive development in adolescents ?
Piaget view of adolescence thinking
| and AI view (information processing perspective
32
what view of intellectual development does Piaget take
cognitive developmental
33
how does Piagets view development
cognitive development perceeds in a fixed step series of stages
34
child wanting to play make believe- what Piaget stage
preoperational
35
during what stage do kids learn the rules of conservation
concrete operational stage
36
when do they take on perspective taking
concrete operational stage
37
what stage can they transcend what is to image alternative possibilities
formal operational stage
38
what do Piaget theories believe defines kids from adolescents
Abstract logical reasoning is defining feature
39
....(similar to deductive reasoning)
| provides logical framework to image range of possible situations and outcomes
Formal operational thought
40
just because adolescences have the capacity to thinking logically does that mean they always do?
no
41
what is the limitations of Piagets view
Skills may develop more gradually and continuously rather than stages
42
what is the limitations of Piagets view
```
logical errors (having capacity but not behaving that way) cant be explained by faulty cognitive development
Skills may develop more gradually and continuously rather than stages
```
43
what is the limitations of Piagets view
```
logical errors (having capacity but not behaving that way) cant be explained by faulty cognitive development
Skills may develop more gradually and continuously rather than stages
```
44
what are the 5 areas of improvement of the Information-Processing View
```
n Selective attention and
divided attention
n Working and long-term memory, autobiographical memories
n Processing speed n Organization
n Metacognition
```
45
how does the info processing model resemble a computer
its about imputes and outputs
46
T: being able to attend to multiple things at once
Selective attention and
| divided attention
47
how is memory improved in adolescents
Working and long-term memory, autobiographical memories
48
why improved memory
increased Processing speed
49
T: we recall memories from our adolescence because of memory improvements most
reminiscent bump
50
the ability to plan how they are going to complete a task is attributed to improvements in
organization
51
info processing model mentions the anatomy of the brain in cognitive development- why
Brain maturation in adolescence may be linked to behavioral,
| emotional, and cognitive development during this period.
52
Brain maturation in adolescence may be linked to behavioral,
| emotional, and cognitive development during this period. what is the problem with this assertion
correlation is not causation.
53
adolescences brain effects their behaviour AND vice versa
t Adolescents’ behavior affects their brain development (e.g., the effects of alcohol and other drugs on the brain).
54
when do cognitive abilities stop developing
Research indicates that more sophisticated cognitive abilities are still developing after individuals are in their 20s.
55
are the cognitive abilities developed in adolescents more important than the improvements in ones 20s
more basic abilities are often well-developed in the teenage years so they hold more weight
56
to understand advances in cognitive development we must first understand ...
how the brain works
57
The brain functions by transmitting ....across circuits that are composed of interconnected cells, called ....
electrical signals
| neurons
58
3 parts of neutron
n Cell body n Axon
| n Dendrites
59
everything we think about depend on flow of electrical impulses across ...
brain circuits
60
neurons don't actually touch each other
t communicate through NT
61
T: A tiny gap between the tip of one neuron’s axon and another neuron’s
dendrite.
synapse
62
T: Specialized chemicals that carry electrical impulses between neurons.
neurotransmitters
63
neurons and the projections that connect them :T
grey matter
64
oon after birth, unused and unnecessary synapses start to be eliminated, a process called .....
synaptic pruning
65
synaptic pruning decreases white matter
f grey matter
66
more synaptic connections is better
f want streamlined efficient connections
67
Synaptic pruning makes the brain more efficient.
t
68
cells other than nurons that send electrical impulses across brain circuit e.g. myelin :T
white matter
69
how do the changes in metacognitive ability relate to brain structure and function
metacognition was correlated with amount of white matter in prefrontal cortex indicates circuitry is more streamlined
70
white matters job?
Provide support and protection for neurons and compose a fatty substance, called myelin, that surrounds the axons of certain neurons.
71
T: The process through which the brain circuits are insulated with myelin, which improves the efficiency of information processing.
myelination
72
T: The capacity of the brain to change in response to experience.
plasticity
73
is plasticity only in adolescences
no but Some areas of the brain may be especially malleable, or “plastic,” in adolescence.
74
2 types of brain plasticity
1. developmental brain plasticity
| 2. adult plasticity
75
T: The malleability of the brain during periods in which the brain is being built, when its anatomy is still changing in profound ways, as in the case of adolescence.
developmental plasticity
76
T: Relatively minor changes in brain circuits as a result of experiences during adulthood, after the brain has matured.(doesn't fundamentally change brain structure like developmental plas but learns new things)
adult plasticity
77
.... is
| critical to shaping the brain during adolescence
Environment, experience
78
what did the study find that looked at the gene that determines degree of plasticity how does that gene interact with parenting practices
for boys in particular the more plasticity allels he carried the more likely unsupportive parenting practices lessen your self reg skills and more likely positive parenting practices increase self regulation= genetic makeup can determine how much their self regulation is influenced by enviro
79
Presence of gene = plasticity x ...
interaction with experiences
80
carrying plasticity gene does what when paired with poor parenting
amplifies effect on self regulation but also amplifies for positive parenting
81
carrying plasticity gene does what when paired with poor parenting
amplifies effect on self regulation but also amplifies for positive parenting
82
during adolescence what area of the brain goes through the most dramatic changes
PFC
83
Adolescent brain is “remodeled” through
... (reflected in the thickening of the cortex, thinning of grey matter) and .... (reflected in increases in white matter) in particular brain regions.
synaptic pruning (unnessasary neurons)
myelination
(efficiency in info processing)
84
improved connectivity between Frontal cortex and limbic system explains what
processing of emotions, social info improves
85
Two important changes in brain function involving the prefrontal cortex (PFC) that leads greater info processing efficiency
Patterns of activation within PFC generally become more focused. n Activity in the PFC becomes increasingly coordinated with
activity in other parts of the brain. e.g. limbic
86
Performance on measures of ...improves steadily during the first part of adolescence.
advanced thinking, or “executive function,”
87
The maturation of functional connectivity is more or less complete by age ...
22
88
in adolescences Changes in how the brain is affected by certain neurotransmitters. which 2
dopamine and seretonin
89
T: NT with role in experience of reward
dopamine
90
T: (role in experience of different moods)
seretonin
91
Changes in limbic system may make individuals more resilient
f more vulnerable
92
how do Changes in limbic system may make individuals more vulnerable 4
More emotional.
n More responsive to stress.
n More likely to engage in reward-seeking and sensation-seeking behavior.
n More vulnerable to substance abuse, depression, and other mental health problems.
93
The age onset of most common psychiatric disorders is somewhere between the ages of ... and ...- why?
10 and 20.
| heightened limbic system increases vulnerability
94
changes to limbic system happen when in adolescences
early before development of PFC
95
Limbic system before PFC -> implications?
seeking rewards, novelty before brain systems in change of decision making and impulse control develop
explains risk taking behaviours
96
Changes in the social brain during adolescence have both costs and benefits ... what are the costs
more self-conscious and embarrassed
| sensitivity to social cues and social evaluation = susceptibility to peer pressure
97
Today, the most widely used measures to assess
| intelligence are ...
intelligence tests.
98
individual differences in adolescents intelligence is important because
intelligence improves dramatically in adol
99
what does IQ stand for
Intelligence quotient
100
... assessed by traditional IQ tests increase dramatically through childhood and adolescence.
`Mental abilities
101
youth learn best when
when stimulated to reach a little further than they can grasp
102
Vygotsky emphasized ... in which intellectual development occurs
context
103
T: what a kid can do with help
Zone of Proximal Development
104
its the role of the instructor to create opportunities that challenge students. to provide stepping stool for students to reach potential :T
scaffolding (our learning can be changed by enviro)
105
T: Involves such cognitive activities as thinking about people, social relationships, and social institutions.
social cognition
106
Adolescents’ conceptions of interpersonal relationships become more mature. in what 3 ways
Understanding of human behavior is more advanced.
n Ideas about social institutions and organizations are more
complex.
n Ability to figure out what other people think is more accurate.
107
Research on social cognition in adolescence falls into four categories:
Theory of mind
n Thinking about social relationships
n Understanding social conventions
n Conceptions of laws, civil liberties, and rights
108
the ability to take on others perspective :T
theory of mind or mentalizing
109
adolescences social cognition doesn't just change the ways in which they think about people but also...
the way they think of society= more civic investment
| these skills teach them they can challenge convention and they have the potential to change things
110
risk taking is common in adolescence. problem?
result in behaviours and accidents that can be prevented
111
how did the part of the brain that responds to reward (nucleus accumbans) differ in adolescents
peak in adolescents then dips back down in adulthood
| brain heightened to reward during adolescence
112
what roles do peers play in risk taking
they reinforce it- when doing risk taking task alone less likely to take risks but when told friends were watching they would take risk even when reward is low = group influence
113
T: Decision making is rational and individuals try to maximize benefits of alternative courses of action and minimize costs.
behavioural decision theory
114
can behavioural decision theory explain for adolescents risk taking
no they are aware of risks,
| heightened sensation seeking and still developing self-control but context matters!
115
adolescents are only risker drivers when with peers than when they have adult passengers.
f adolescents on average are riskier drivers than adults, but also Youth drive more recklessly when they are alone or with peers than when they have adult passengers.
116
youth behave in risky ways because of faulty decision making
f because of Dif values and priorities Adolescents and adults evaluate the desirability of possible consequences differently. e.g. social consequences more weight vs adults health risk
117
how can we message adolescences to prevent risk
convince them that the reward is small not the cost is small
118
Adolescents may be more attuned to the ... than adults are.
potential rewards
119
5 ways adolescences thinking is more advanced
1. can think beyond what is real= thinking of possibilities
2. can think abstractly
3. can think about thinking
4. multidimensional rather than limited to single issue
5. see things as relative rather than absolute
120
for the child, what is possible is what is real; for the adolescent, what is real ...
is just a subset of what is possible
121
thinking of what is possible beyond our reality allows adolescents to think “...”—to think not only about how things actually are, but to think about what might have been
counterfactually
122
in adol you are who you are
f who you are is just one possibility of who you could be.
123
The adolescent’s ability to reason systematically in terms of what is possible comes in handy when learning ...2
math and science.
124
Although many parents believe that their children become more argumentative during adolescence, what is more likely going on is that ...
the cognitive changes of the period enable them to be better arguers
125
children are unable to conceive of things being different from what they observe
f But adolescents are able to move easily between the actual and the possible, to generate alternative possibilities and explanations systematically, and to compare the ways things are with the way they might be under different circumstances.
126
T: A type of logical reasoning in which one draws logically necessary conclusions from a general set of premises, or givens.
deductive reasoning
127
One manifestation of the adolescent’s increased facility with thinking about possibilities is the development of ...
deductive reasoning.
128
All hockey players wear mouth guards.
Kim is a hockey player.
Does Kim wear a mouth guard? how do deductive reasoners answer this
ndividuals who reason deductively understand that the correct conclusion (Kim wears a mouth guard) necessarily follows from the first two statements
129
All hockey players wear mouth guards.
Kim is wearing a mouth guard.
Is Kim a hockey player?
adolescents are more likely to say that there is no way of knowing whether Kim plays hockey, because we are not told that the only people who wear mouth guards are hockey players.
130
why are adol better able to answer the hockey q
One reason for their superior performance on these sorts of problems is that adolescents are better able to catch themselves before they incorrectly answer the question and pause a moment before responding (controlling actions brain area develops)
131
T: if then thinking
hypothetical thinking
132
what does hypothetical thinking require
you need to see beyond what is directly observable and apply logical reasoning to anticipate what might be possible. Being able to plan ahead, to see the future consequences of an action, and to provide alternative explanations of events
suspend beliefs about something to think abstractly
133
why does playing devils advocate require hypothetical thinking
permits us to understand the logic behind another person’s argument without necessarily agreeing with it
134
Hypothetical thinking also has implications for the adolescent’s social behavior. how
Taking the perspective of others enables the adolescent to think through what someone else might be thinking or feeling (“If I were in her situation, I’d be pretty angry”)
135
hypothetical thinking plays an important role in decision making, because i...
t permits us to plan ahead and foresee the consequences of choosing one alternative over another
136
T: things that cannot be experienced directly through the senses.
abstract concepts
137
The growth of ... during adolescence is directly related to the young person’s improving ability to think abstractly.
social thinking
138
T: The process of thinking about thinking itself.
metacognition
139
e.g. of metacognition
when you consciously use a strategy for remembering something
make sure you’ve understood something you’re reading before going on to the next paragraph
140
Because adolescents are better at thinking about their own thoughts, they are much better at ...
monitoring their own learning
141
Brain systems that are active when individuals are ... continue to mature throughout adolescence and early adulthood, which may help the development of metacognition
monitoring their own performance
142
how does metacognition help with identity
Thinking about thinking also leads to increased introspection and self-consciousness.
143
problems of metacognition ?
adolescent egocentrism
144
Adolescent egocentrism results in two distinct problems in thinking
1. imaginary audience
| personal fable
145
parts of the brain that process ....—undergo significant change during early adolescence, just when self-consciousness is increasing
social information—such as perceptions of what others are thinking
146
what is imaginary audience
comes from having such a heightened sense of self-consciousness that you imagine that your behavior is the focus of everyone else’s attention
147
Brain imaging studies indicate that adolescents’ self-perceptions rely more than adults’ on ...
what they believe others think of them
148
pros of personal fable
Maintaining a personal fable of uniqueness has some benefits, in that it enhances adolescents’ self-esteem and feelings of self-importance.
149
cons of personal fable
But holding on to a personal fable also can be dangerous: think about a sexually active adolescent who believes that pregnancy simply won’t happen to her, or a reckless driver who believes that he will defy the laws of nature by taking hairpin turns at breakneck speed
150
T: An adolescent’s belief that he or she is unique and therefore not subject to the rules that govern other people’s behavior.
personal fable
151
the personal fable persists into adulthood
t
152
The ability to think in multidimensional terms means what
adolescents can see things through more complicated lenses
153
Adolescents can give much more complicated answers than children to questions such as “Why did the Civil War begin?” or “How did Jane Austen’s novels reflect the changing position of women in European society?”= why these questions
because many factors led to the Civil War, just as many factors affected the way in which people reacted to Austen’s work.
154
The development of a more sophisticated understanding of ... is also made possible by an improved ability to think in multiple dimensions.
probability
155
As is the case with other gains in cognitive ability, the ability of individuals to think in multiple dimensions also has consequences outside of school.
more complicated and sophisticated self concepts and relationships
Adolescents describe themselves and others in more complicated terms (“I’m shy with strangers, but extroverted with people once I’ve met them”) and find it easier to look at problems from multiple perspectives (“I know that’s the way you see it, but try to look at it from her point of view”)
156
which adol thinking development enables sarcasm satire, metaphor
Adolescents’ ability to look at things in multiple dimensions
a combination of what is said, how it is said, and the context in which it is said.
157
Compared to children, adolescents are more likely to question others’ assertions and less likely to accept “facts” as absolute truths. what is this a function of adol thinking devel
adol relativism
158
how does relativism cause parent conflict
who may feel as though their teenagers question everything just for the sake of argument.
adolescents begin seeing parents’ values that they had previously considered absolutely correct (“Moral people do not have sex before they are married”) as completely relative (“Welcome to the twenty-first century, Dad”).
159
there is general agreement that adolescents’ thinking is more advanced than children’s, there is far less consensus about the processes underlying this advantage why 2
no one single factor distinguishes thinking during adolescence from thinking during childhood
different points of view that theorists have taken toward cognitive development in general
160
Two theoretical viewpoints that have been especially important in adol thinking development are the...2
Piagetian perspective and the information-processing perspective
161
Theorists who adopt a Piagetian perspective take a ... view of intellectual development
cognitive-developmental
162
how does the Piagetian view the difference between child and adol cognition
cognitive development proceeds through a fixed sequence of qualitatively distinct stages, that adolescent thinking is fundamentally different from the type of thinking employed by children, and that during adolescence, individuals develop a special type of thinking that they use across a variety of situations.
163
T: A perspective on development, based on the work of Piaget, that takes a qualitative, stage-theory approach.
cognitive developmental view
164
what are Piagets four stages of cog devel and the age it occurs
(1) the sensorimotor period (from birth until about age 2), (2) the preoperational period (from about age 2 until about age 5), (3) the period of concrete operations (from about age 6 until early adolescence), and (4) the period of formal operations (from adolescence through adulthood)
165
Piagetian theorists believe that ... is the chief feature that differentiates adolescent thinking from that of children
abstract logical reasoning
166
being able to think hypothetically, multidimensionally, and abstractly. The connection between these skills and the development of formal operations is clear:
you need a system of reasoning that works just as well in hypothetical situations as it does in actual ones. to do all these things
167
very little research supports the idea that cognitive development proceeds in a stage-like fashion and that there is a qualitatively unique stage of thinking that is characteristic of adolescence
t
168
if PIAGEts stages is wrong what is actually happening
advanced reasoning capabilities develop gradually and continuously from childhood through adolescence and beyond, in more of a steady fashion than was proposed by Piaget
169
advanced reasoning capabilities as ... that are employed by older children more often than by younger ones, by some adolescents more often than by others, and by individuals when they are in certain situations (especially ... ones) more often than when they are in other ones
skills, familiar
170
Just what is it about the ways adolescents think about things that makes them better problem solvers than children? This question has been the focus of researchers working from the ...
information-processing perspective.
171
IPP: A perspective on cognition that derives from the study of artificial intelligence and attempts to explain cognitive development in terms of the ... (such as ...).
growth of specific components of the thinking process
172
Studies of changes in specific components of information processing have focused on four areas in which improvement occurs during adolescence: ...
attention, memory, processing speed, and organization.
173
what helps adolescents be better able than children to concentrate and stay focused on complicated tasks, such as reading and comprehending difficult material.
attention improvements and the ability to inhibit an unwanted response
174
attention improvements and the ability to inhibit an unwanted response these improvements is likely linked to maturation of brain systems that govern ...
impulse control
175
T: The process by which we focus on one stimulus while tuning out another.
selective attention
176
T: The process of paying attention to two or more stimuli at the same time.
divided attention
177
3 parts of memory that improve
working, long term and autobiographical memory
178
autobiographical memory, find that our earliest memories, some of which we lose during childhood, stabilize sometime during early adolescence, when most people can remember back to when they were about ...
2.5 yo
179
what is the reminiscence bump
Adults generally remember details about the people, places, and events they encountered during adolescence better than those from other years
180
the rem bump is due to better memory in adol
f The reminiscence bump does not appear to result from better memory, because basic memory abilities remain strong until midlife. (Nor is it due to the fact that so many important events happen for the first time during adolescence)
181
what explain rem bump then
brain regions responsible for strong emotions are especially sensitive during adolescence
(brain systems that govern emotion undergo dramatic change in adolescence. The reminiscence bump doesn’t exist because more emotional events take place in adolescence, but because ordinary events trigger stronger emotions.)
182
which type of memory is most important for problem solving
working memory
183
advances in working memory during adolescence has what brain function underpinnings
are linked to the ways in which these areas of the brain are organized and connected, which permits more efficient and powerful information processing
184
adolescents who are frequent multitaskers preform better on working but worse on LT memory
f worse on both
185
This increase in the speed of information processing occurs mainly in ...
early adolescence (Processing speed does not change very much between middle adolescence and young adulthood)
186
what are 4 information-processing gains in adolescence
organization speed memory attention
187
adol are more likely to approach a problem with an appropriate strategy in mind and are more flexible in their ability to use different strategies in different situations- what aspect on info processing
organization
188
how kids vs adol ask qs in game 20 Questions shows you what cognitive difference
organization
189
do 15 year olds have the same cognitive abilities as adults
By the time they have turned 15, adolescents are just as proficient as adults in basic cognitive abilities (orking memory, attention, and logical reasoning abilities level off stop increasing)
190
Is Cognitive Development Complete by Age 15?
still developing more sophisticated cognitive skills, such as thinking creatively, planning ahead or judging the relative costs and benefits of a risky decision and in the coordination of cognition and emotion, when feelings might interfere with logical reasoning
191
improved intellectual functioning in adolescence is reflected in larger brain size
f the brain reaches its adult size by age 10
192
what 2 areas of physical brain changes create improved adol brain func
changes in brain structure and function
193
what tech advancements advanced our understanding of adol brain devel
various imaging techniques, especially functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI).
194
A technique used to produce images of the brain, often while the subject is performing some sort of mental task. :T
fMRI
195
T: A technique used to produce images of the brain that shows connections among different regions.
iffusion tensor imaging (DTI)
196
T: The physical form and organization of the brain.
brain structure
197
T: Patterns of brain activity.
brain function
198
allows us to better understand how “communication” patterns linking different regions of the brain change with development- which brain imagining technique
DTI
199
EEG can be used to examine changes in electrical activity—called ...—in response to different stimuli or events
event-related potentials (ERPs)
200
T: A technique for measuring electrical activity at different locations on the scalp.
electroencephalography (EEG)
201
what is an ERP
Changes in electrical activity in areas of the brain in response to specific stimuli or events.
202
Are Male and Female Brains Different?
genders in brain structure and function are very small and unlikely to explain differences between males and females in the way they behave or think
203
male brains are about 10% larger so they are smarter
f no relationship bw size and function
204
here are few consistent sex differences in the size of specific brain regions or structures
t
205
connections between pubertal hormones and brain development?
). It is clear that the structure of the brain is changed by exposure to sex hormones, but the ways in which the brains of adolescent boys and girls differ as a result of sex hormones is enormously complicated
206
different patterns of ... between brain regions in males and females have been found
connections
207
The brain functions by transmitting electrical signals across circuits that are composed of interconnected cells, called ..
.neurons
208
In the adult brain, each neuron has about ...connections
10,000
209
what is grey matter
neurons and the projections that connect them are called “gray matter.”
210
Everything we think, perceive, feel, or do depends on the what happening in the brain n
flow of electrical impulses across the brain’s circuits.
211
There is a tiny gap, called a ..., between the tip of one neuron’s axon and another neuron’s dendrite.
synapse
212
T:
| Specialized chemicals that carry electrical impulses between neurons.
NT
213
how do NT systems help the brain stay organized
Each neurotransmitter has a specific molecular structure that fits into a receptor for which it is precisely designed= brain circuits
214
how are synapses developed
partially genetically programmed partially though experience
215
The more a ... is used, the stronger its electrical pathway becomes.
synapse
216
At 1 year of age, the number of synapses in the infant brain is about twice the number in the adult brain- what is this the result of
synaptic pruning
217
what does synaptic printing help with
improving the efficiency of information processing.
218
what happens to grey matter during synaptic pruning
Synaptic pruning results in a decrease in the amount of gray matter in the brain
219
When we plot the density of synapses over time, a series of ∩-shaped curves that peak at different ages, depending on the specific region of the brain- why
because different regions are pruned at different ages- development of synapses is characterized by a period of growth (when more and more synapses are created) followed by a period of decline (when more and more synapses are pruned)
220
Cells other than neurons also play a role in transmitting electrical impulses along brain circuits what are these
These cells, known as “white matter,” provide support and protection for neurons and compose a fatty substance, called myelin, that surrounds the axons of certain neurons
221
when does the growth of myelin occur
myelination, occurs in waves, beginning before birth and continuing into young adulthood
222
what happens to malleability of brain in adol
it is more easily shaped, for better or for worse, by experience during adolescence than at any time other than the first few years of life= age of opportunity
223
The brain’s remarkable malleability in response to experience enables us to learn and strengthen abilities, from very basic ones (like memory) to very advanced ones (like planning ahead) supporting use it or loose it hypothesis
“use it and improve it."
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There are two types of brain plasticity: ...2
developmental and adult
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Relatively minor changes in brain circuits as a result of experiences during adulthood, after the brain has matured., allow for adult learning :T
adult plasticity (modification to existing circuits)
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T: Extensive remodeling of the brain’s circuitry in response to experiences during childhood and adolescence, while the brain is still maturing.
developmental plasticity
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how are adult and developmental plasticity different 3
1. adult plasticity doesn’t fundamentally alter the neural structure of the brain, whereas developmental plasticity does
2. brain systems are far less malleable during periods of adult plasticity than they are during periods of developmental plasticity
3. because the developing brain is so much more malleable, it can be influenced by a far wider range of experiences than can the mature brain
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why do we have much more trouble learning to ski or surf as adults than as children and we don’t become better at seeing or hearing after we have matured beyond infancy
the developing brain is chemically predisposed to be modified by experiences, like clay when it is still soft, whereas the adult brain is predisposed to resist modification—like that same clay once it has hardened
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That means that before our brain has fully matured, we can be affected, in potentially permanent ways, by every experience compared to what in adulthood
requires intentionality (explains why we recall things from adolescence more easily than we do from adulthood.)
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... is what allows us to learn from experience, it enables us to adapt to the environment
plasticity
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why is plasticity in adol risky
during these times of heightened sensitivity, the brain is also more vulnerable to damage from physical harms, like drugs or environmental toxins, or psychological ones, like trauma and stress
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One part of the brain that is pruned dramatically in adolescence is the ...
prefrontal cortex
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There is also continued myelination of the cortex throughout adolescence, which also leads to many cognitive advances- why
Myelination is stimulated by puberty and education
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Better connectivity between the prefrontal cortex and the limbic system, leads to improvements in our ...
ability to regulate our emotions and coordinate our thoughts and feelings
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Structural maturation of the prefrontal cortex is not complete until the ...
mid-20s
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3 jobs of limbic system
processing of emotional experience, social information, and reward and punishment.
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The two most important changes in brain function involving the prefrontal cortex in adolescence both lead to greater efficiency in information processing what are they
1 patterns of activation within the prefrontal cortex generally become more focused
2. individuals become more likely to use multiple parts of the brain simultaneously and coordinate activity between prefrontal regions and other areas
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patterns of activation within the prefrontal cortex generally become more focused- how do you see this play out in response inhibition
adolescents are less likely than children to activate prefrontal regions that are not relevant to performing the task well
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2 functions that improve as a result of patterns of activation within the prefrontal cortex generally become more focused
response inhibition and executive function
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T: More advanced thinking abilities, enabled chiefly by the maturation of the prefrontal cortex, especially in early adolescence.
executive function
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individuals become more likely to use multiple parts of the brain simultaneously and coordinate activity between prefrontal regions and other areas when is this especially imports
where the task demands may overtax the prefrontal cortex working alone, and especially on tasks that require self-control, where it is necessary to coordinate thinking and feeling
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adol perform better than when no such rewards are offered- why
their self control is stronger than external
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recruitment of multiple brain regions working as a “team,” referred to as functional connectivity, is made possible by the increase in ...
physical connections between brain regions
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The maturation of functional connectivity is more or less complete by age ...
22
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T: The extent to which multiple brain regions function at the same time, which improves during adolescence.
functional connectivity
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These changes, which are partly caused by puberty, make adolescents more emotional, more responsive to stress, more sensitive to rewards, and more likely to engage in sensation seeking than either children or adults. what are these changes
changes, especially in the limbic system, in the ways in which the brain is affected by certain neurotransmitters like seretonin and dopamine
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NT sensitivity can be bad- why
They are also thought to increase individuals’ vulnerability to substance abuse, because they seek higher levels of reward; to depression, because of their increased vulnerability to stress; and to other mental health problems, because of their easily aroused emotions, including anger, anxiety, and sadness
increase in emotional reactivity is an increase in adolescents’ sensitivity to feeling threatened, which may prompt some adolescents to lash out at others or deliberately seek out experiences that are frightening
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what does dopamine regulate
reward
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what is seretonin involved in
moods
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when in adol do limbic vs prefrontal cortex changes occur
limbic early
| prefrontal later
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is limbic or prefrontal changes tied to puberty
Unlike the changes that occur in the limbic system, which have been directly linked to the impact of pubertal hormones on the brain, the development of cognitive control is more or less independent of puberty
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adolescents’ sensitivity to reward is always maladaptive
f it may lead others to explore the environment in ways that lead them to engage in prosocial behavior, to learn new skills, to be flexible, and to increase their knowledge of the world
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what are the regions of the social brain network 5
dorsal medial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC) and temporoparietal junction (TPJ), the posterior superior temporal sulcus (pSTS), the anterior temporal cortex (ATC), inferior frontal gyrus (IFG),
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Social brain regions: match with function:....2 which are involved in thinking about mental states; the .... which is involved in observing faces and biological motion; ..., which is involved in applying social knowledge; and the ... which is involved in understanding the actions and emotions of others.
dorsal medial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC) and temporoparietal junction (TPJ),
posterior superior temporal sulcus (pSTS),
the anterior temporal cortex (ATC)
inferior frontal gyrus (IFG),
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In one study that tested individuals’ ability to exercise response inhibition, adolescents had a harder time controlling themselves than either children or adults when responding to pictures showing peers having a good time- why
their developing social brain
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being observed by a friend interfered with adolescents’ cognitive performance but also adults
f but had no such effect on adults
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downside of social brain devel?
people become more self-conscious. Adolescents report feeling embarrassed more often than either children or adults
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The increase in sex hormones at puberty appears to play a role in influencing this increase in sensitivity to others’ facial expressions- why does this make sense evolutionarily
If your goal is to find a willing sex partner, it helps to pay close attention to other peoples’ facial expressions
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sensitivity to others’ mental states increases during adolescence, a change that also is reflected in changes in patterns of brain activity when individuals observe others. is this reflected in all teens
f that adolescents vary in how sensitive they are to the influence of others—some are highly aware of the social world, whereas others are close to oblivious
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pros and cons of attentiveness to others mental states
pro (it may make teenagers more socially skilled
cons: makes adolescents more easily distracted by others’ emotional expressions = won't listen to message behind angry tone from parents
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brain structure changes in adol cause behaviour changes
not necessarily behaviour also influences brain development
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... of a specific collection of neurons as a result of engaging in a particular behavior will actually result in structural changes that strengthen the connections among those neurons, which in turn will make them function more efficiently.
Repeated activation
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when adolescents start to think like adults
the answer depends on which aspects of thinking or brain development one is concerned about
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When it comes to relatively more sophisticated cognitive abilities, when does development stop
capabilities are still developing well after individuals enter their 20s
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when 18- to 21-year-olds are ...., their cognitive performance and brain activity resembles that of teenagers, but that under more calming conditions, young adults look more like people in their mid-20s
emotionally aroused
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How large are individual differences in intelligence in adolescence?
?
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The WISC-IV and the WAIS-III intelligence tests are divided into what 2 groups
verbal tests and arithmetic abilities
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The WISC-IV and the WAIS-III intelligence tests are divided into what 2 groups
verbal tests and performance tests
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T: measures of memory, perceptual reasoning, and picture completion
performance tests
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there is a link between intelligence and brain development what is it
More intelligent adolescents have a more dramatic and longer period of production of synapses before adolescence and a more dramatic pruning of them after and more connection bw brain regions, longer periods of plasticity
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the researchers used brain imaging to construct a “....,” which quantified how mature the brain’s circuitry was
brain development index
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Individuals with advanced brain development scores performed more accurately on tests of cognitive ability, including various tests of attention, memory, and reasoning
f significantly faster although not necessarily more accurately
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There is strong evidence that differences among individuals in performance on brain development index tests are largely (although not entirely) ... in nature
genetic in nature
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Mental abilities assessed by conventional IQ tests go through what pattern of development through adol
increase dramatically through childhood and adolescence, reaching a plateau sometime in mid-to-late adolescence
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when should interventions for Intellect be undertaken
mid adol
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how does extended schooling influence IQ
research shows that extended schooling during adolescence itself enhances individuals’ performance on standardized tests of intelligence
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Vygotsky argued that children and adolescents learn best in everyday situations when they ...
.encounter tasks that are neither too simple nor too advanced, but just slightly more challenging than their abilities permit them to solve on their own
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what did Vygotsky highlight the importance of in intelligence
context
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T: In Vygotsky’s theory, the level of challenge that is still within the individual’s reach but that forces an individual to develop more advanced skills.
zone of proximal development
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Structuring a learning situation so that it is just within the reach of the student. :T
scaffolding
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how does challenge relate to brain plasticity
novelty and challenge are key to maintaining the brain’s plasticity
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Some research suggests that learning certain skills may be easier in late adolescence than early adolescence, what does this tell us
which suggests that the window of opportunity created by heightened brain plasticity may be open longer than one might think
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T: The aspect of cognition that concerns thinking about other people, about interpersonal relations, and about social institutions.
social cognition
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Individual differences in ... abilities also help explain why some adolescents have more social problems than others
social cognitive
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4 most commonly studied areas of social cognition
(1) theory of mind; (2) thinking about social relationships; (3) understanding social conventions; and (4) conceptions of laws, civil liberties, and rights
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T: The ability to understand that others have beliefs, intentions, and knowledge that may be different from one’s own
theory of mind
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theory of mind is supported by brain systems that allow for ...
mentalizing
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what is mentalizing
The ability to understand someone else’s mental state.
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why do adol get better at lying
Adolescents also become better at lying as a result of these improvements in social cognition and theory of mind
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adol are equally able to take on the perspective of all people
f They are especially able to take the perspective of someone the same age
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how does theory of mind help adol
lead to improvements in communication, because they become more capable of formulating arguments in terms that are more likely to be understood by someone whose opinion is different.
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Improvements in ...lead to changes in the way that adolescents think about relationships with peers and parents.
mentalizing
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how does advancements in adol thinking cause exclusion
take more things into consideration
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adolescents generally believe that social exclusion on the basis of gender orientation, nationality, race, or ethnicity is wrong
t
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Changes in adolescents’ understanding of social relationships also transform their beliefs about ..., which has important implications for their relationships with parents and other adults
authority
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adolescents invariably come to reject the authority of adults
f adolescents increasingly distinguish between issues that authority figures have the right to regulate and issues that are their own personal choices
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Issues that had been viewed as matters of right and wrong start to seem like matters of....and, as such, beyond the bounds of parental authority
personal choice
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One main source of conflict between adolescents and their parents involves which ....
issues parents have legitimate authority over and which they do not.
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how are social conventions viewed in middle childhood
seen as arbitrary and changeable, but adherence to them is not; compliance with such conventions is based on rules and on the dictates of authority
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how do adol view social conventions
young adolescents often see social conventions as nothing but social expectations and, consequently, as insufficient reasons for compliance.
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T: The norms that govern everyday behavior in social situations.
social conventions
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how do opinions on social conventions change as we age
Gradually, however, adolescents begin to see social conventions as the means by which society regulates people’s behavior: individuals come to see that social conventions help to coordinate interactions among people.
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Several themes cut across the research findings from studies of different aspects of social cognition—the way we think about people, relationships, conventions, and rights- what are they
better at tep outside themselves and see things from other vantage points
2. see social rules as subject to debate not absolute
3. adolescents develop a more differentiated, more nuanced understanding of social norms.
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Several themes cut across the research findings from studies of different aspects of social cognition—the way we think about people, relationships, conventions, and rights- what are they 3
better at tep outside themselves and see things from other vantage points
2. see social rules as subject to debate not absolute
3. adolescents develop a more differentiated, more nuanced understanding of social norms.
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adolescents become increasingly likely to believe that there are some freedoms—like freedom of speech and freedom of religion—that are subject to restriction
f should not be restricted
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social cognition encompasses all that is involved in social competence
f there is more to social competence than social cognition
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The main health problems of adolescence are the result of behaviors that can be prevented- what is this the result of
adol risk taking
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T: An approach to understanding adolescent risk taking, in which behaviors are seen as the outcome of systematic decision-making processes.
behaviour decision theory
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5 steps of anylzing the outcome of a behaviour according to behaviour decision theory
(1) identifying alternative choices, (2) identifying the consequences that might follow from each choice, (3) evaluating the costs and benefits of each possible consequence, (4) assessing the likelihood of each possible consequence, and (5) combining all this information according to some decision rule
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why won't educating adolescents in how to make “better” decisions is not likely to reduce risk taking
because adolescents, at least by the time they are 15 or so, have the same basic cognitive abilities as adults so what explains their risky behaviours (they are = in risk perception)
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research indicates that adolescents vary far more than adults in how they ... risk—words like “probably,” “likely,” or “a very low chance”—suggesting that health educators and practitioners should not take for granted that an adolescent’s understanding of a message about risk is what the educator thinks it is
interpret words and phrases used to describe
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why more risky behaviour in adol then
different values and priorities that adolescents and adults have
more attuned to rewards
emotional and contextual factors
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adol more attuned to rewards is related to what brain region
limbic system
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adolescents underestimate the likelihood of getting pregnant following unprotected sex, sex education efforts might focus on teaching teenagers the ...
actual probability.
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adolescents may differ from adults in important ways that are not captured by measures of logical reasoning, such as ...4
susceptibility to peer pressure, impulsivity, orientation to the present rather than the future, or reward seeking
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when is adol decision making as good as adults
when individuals are tested under calm conditions, but that the quality of adolescents’ decision making declines more than adults’ when they are emotionally aroused or fatigued
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reason that middle adolescence is a period of heightened risk taking is that it is a period characterized by a combination of ...2
high sensation seeking and high impulsivity
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why more risk taking with boys
because of the impact of testosterone on sensation seeking
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T: The pursuit of experiences that are novel or exciting.
sensation seeking
320
3 contexts that increase risk taking
emotionally aroused
| unsupervised and around peers
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that having their mother around actually increases activation in adolescents’ reward centers when they are making safe decisions, but decreases it when they are making risky ones
t
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when does driving with peer make it more dangerous (at what ages)
increases the risk of crashes dramatically among 16- and 17-year-old drivers, significantly among 18- and 19-year-old drivers, and not at all among adults
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why more crashes when young
adolescent passengers can be distracting to new drivers and because adolescents are simply more likely to take risks in the presence of peers
in the presence of their peers, adolescents may pay more attention to the potential rewards of a risky decision than they do when they are alone
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several theorists have proposed models of adolescent risk taking that consider the ways in which two different thinking systems—...2, and one that is intuitive and gut-level—interact to influence behavior
one that is deliberative and logical
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the development of logical thinking may differentiate adolescents from children, the main change to take place between adolescence and adulthood is not the further development of ...
logical decision making (development of intuitive decision making that is based on experience)
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What stops adults from taking a lot of risks is that they are good at systematically analyzing the probabilities of various outcomes
f , but because they get a gut-level feeling that keeps them away from the risky act
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improvements in deliberative decision-making abilities are associated with more, not less, risk taking
t
328
does increasing edu around a risk reduce adol behaviour
no
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enabling adolescents to make more accurate determinations of risk may inadvertently increase risky behavior, why
because the actual probabilities of something bad happening after engaging in a risky act are actually very small
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adolescents are more likely than adults to be swayed by their ...than by information alone
personal experiences
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alternative approach to preventing adol risk?
might focus on limiting adolescents’ opportunities to put themselves in risky situations.
economic policies (increasing costs)
make risky things harder for adolescents to obtain
increase penalties
safe outlets for sensation seeking
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graduated driver licensing, which phases adolescent drivers into full unrestricted driving privileges over time, lowers the incidence of fatal crashes involving 16-year-old drivers but what is the problem still
, although it appears to increase the incidence of crashes among 18-year-olds
