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CH 2 Cognitive transitions Flashcards

1
Q

Compared to children, adolescents thinking is more sophisticated in their ability to:

A

(1) Think about possibilities.
(2) Think about abstract concepts.
(3) Think about thinking. (4) Think in multiple dimensions.
(5) See knowledge as relative

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2
Q

T: think about thinking

A

metacognition

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3
Q

T: seeing knowledge as relative

A

relativism

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4
Q

what are the ways children vs adolescences think about possibilities

A 
children= concrete events 
adolescences= what might be
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5
Q

T: not just thinking about what is but what might have been

A

counterfactual thinking

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6
Q

Adolescents are able to move easily between the … and the … to generate alternative possibilities.

A

specific and the abstract

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7
Q

(Thinking About Possibilities) T: A type of logical reasoning in which you draw logically necessary conclusions from a general set of premises, or givens.

A

deductive reasoning

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8
Q

(Thinking About Possibilities)
T: “If-then” thinking
n Example: Playing devil’s advocate

A

hypothetical thinking

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9
Q

adolescences cant suspend current beleifs to think of other perspectives

A

f they can

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10
Q

what are some language skills adolescences begin to understand as a result of their Ability to comprehend higher-
order abstract logic 4

A

Puns, proverbs, metaphors, and analogies

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11
Q

Improvements in social cognition during adolescence is directly related to improvements in the ability to …

A

think abstractly.

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12
Q

understanding clever jokes is the result of what advancement to adolescences thinking

A

abstract concepts

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13
Q

an adolescent takes an interest in politics as the result of what advancement

A

abstract concepts

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14
Q

(thinking about thinking) adolescences Increased … allows them to think about their our own emotions.

A

introspection

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15
Q

(thinking about thinking) Increased ….: thinking that others are thinking about us.

A

self-consciousness

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16
Q

what are the 3 skills that come with metacognition

A

Monitoring one’s own cognitive activity during thinking
n Increased introspection: thinking about our own emotions.
n Increased self-consciousness: thinking that others are thinking about us.

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17
Q

problem with metacognition

A

preoccupy self with what others are thinking

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18
Q

does metacognition continue to improve in adulthood?

A

no levels off

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19
Q

problems with introspection

A

self absorption

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20
Q

what phenomena exemplifies adolescents egocentrism 2

A

imaginary audience phenomena

personal fable

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21
Q

what is the imaginary audience phenomena

A

Believe that everyone is watching

n Behavior is the focus of other’s concern

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22
Q

what is the personal fable

A

Experiences are unique

n Nothing bad can happen to them because they are special regardless of what happens to others

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23
Q

“you’d never understand how I feel” what phenomena

A

personal fable

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24
Q

problems with personal fable

A

risky behaviours (online sex behaviours- saw themselves as less vulnerable)

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25
Q

what arises from thinking in multiple dimensions

A

more sophisticated conception of self and relationships

encourages understanding of sarcasm, satire and metaphors

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26
Q

T: Ability to view things from more than one aspect at a time

A

thinking in multiple dimensions

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27
Q

More sophisticated understanding of probability- what thinking advancement

A

multiple dimensions

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28
Q

children see things in absolute terms, how does this change in adolescences

A

see things relative to other things

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29
Q

Compared to children, adolescents are more likely to ….and less likely to accept “facts” as absolute truths.

A

question others’ assertions

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30
Q

problems with relativism

A

promote skepticism so Difficulties can arise between youth and their parents.
see parents opinions as just their perspective that can be questioned

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31
Q

2 important theoretical perspectives on cognitive development in adolescents ?

A

Piaget view of adolescence thinking

and AI view (information processing perspective

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32
Q

what view of intellectual development does Piaget take

A

cognitive developmental

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33
Q

how does Piagets view development

A

cognitive development perceeds in a fixed step series of stages

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34
Q

child wanting to play make believe- what Piaget stage

A

preoperational

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35
Q

during what stage do kids learn the rules of conservation

A

concrete operational stage

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36
Q

when do they take on perspective taking

A

concrete operational stage

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37
Q

what stage can they transcend what is to image alternative possibilities

A

formal operational stage

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38
Q

what do Piaget theories believe defines kids from adolescents

A

Abstract logical reasoning is defining feature

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39
Q

….(similar to deductive reasoning)

provides logical framework to image range of possible situations and outcomes

A

Formal operational thought

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40
Q

just because adolescences have the capacity to thinking logically does that mean they always do?

A

no

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41
Q

what is the limitations of Piagets view

A

Skills may develop more gradually and continuously rather than stages

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42
Q

what is the limitations of Piagets view

A 
logical errors (having capacity but not behaving that way) cant be explained by faulty cognitive development 
Skills may develop more gradually and continuously rather than stages
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43
Q

what is the limitations of Piagets view

A 
logical errors (having capacity but not behaving that way) cant be explained by faulty cognitive development 
Skills may develop more gradually and continuously rather than stages
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44
Q

what are the 5 areas of improvement of the Information-Processing View

A 
n Selective attention and
divided attention
n Working and long-term memory, autobiographical memories
n Processing speed n Organization
n Metacognition
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45
Q

how does the info processing model resemble a computer

A

its about imputes and outputs

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46
Q

T: being able to attend to multiple things at once

A

Selective attention and

divided attention

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47
Q

how is memory improved in adolescents

A

Working and long-term memory, autobiographical memories

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48
Q

why improved memory

A

increased Processing speed

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49
Q

T: we recall memories from our adolescence because of memory improvements most

A

reminiscent bump

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50
Q

the ability to plan how they are going to complete a task is attributed to improvements in

A

organization

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51
Q

info processing model mentions the anatomy of the brain in cognitive development- why

A

Brain maturation in adolescence may be linked to behavioral,

emotional, and cognitive development during this period.

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52
Q

Brain maturation in adolescence may be linked to behavioral,

emotional, and cognitive development during this period. what is the problem with this assertion

A

correlation is not causation.

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53
Q

adolescences brain effects their behaviour AND vice versa

A

t Adolescents’ behavior affects their brain development (e.g., the effects of alcohol and other drugs on the brain).

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54
Q

when do cognitive abilities stop developing

A

Research indicates that more sophisticated cognitive abilities are still developing after individuals are in their 20s.

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55
Q

are the cognitive abilities developed in adolescents more important than the improvements in ones 20s

A

more basic abilities are often well-developed in the teenage years so they hold more weight

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56
Q

to understand advances in cognitive development we must first understand …

A

how the brain works

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57
Q

The brain functions by transmitting ….across circuits that are composed of interconnected cells, called ….

A

electrical signals

neurons

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58
Q

3 parts of neutron

A

n Cell body n Axon

n Dendrites

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59
Q

everything we think about depend on flow of electrical impulses across …

A

brain circuits

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60
Q

neurons don’t actually touch each other

A

t communicate through NT

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61
Q

T: A tiny gap between the tip of one neuron’s axon and another neuron’s
dendrite.

A

synapse

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62
Q

T: Specialized chemicals that carry electrical impulses between neurons.

A

neurotransmitters

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63
Q

neurons and the projections that connect them :T

A

grey matter

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64
Q

oon after birth, unused and unnecessary synapses start to be eliminated, a process called …..

A

synaptic pruning

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65
Q

synaptic pruning decreases white matter

A

f grey matter

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66
Q

more synaptic connections is better

A

f want streamlined efficient connections

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67
Q

Synaptic pruning makes the brain more efficient.

A

t

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68
Q

cells other than nurons that send electrical impulses across brain circuit e.g. myelin :T

A

white matter

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69
Q

how do the changes in metacognitive ability relate to brain structure and function

A

metacognition was correlated with amount of white matter in prefrontal cortex indicates circuitry is more streamlined

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70
Q

white matters job?

A

Provide support and protection for neurons and compose a fatty substance, called myelin, that surrounds the axons of certain neurons.

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71
Q

T: The process through which the brain circuits are insulated with myelin, which improves the efficiency of information processing.

A

myelination

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72
Q

T: The capacity of the brain to change in response to experience.

A

plasticity

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73
Q

is plasticity only in adolescences

A

no but Some areas of the brain may be especially malleable, or “plastic,” in adolescence.

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74
Q

2 types of brain plasticity

A
  1. developmental brain plasticity

2. adult plasticity

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75
Q

T: The malleability of the brain during periods in which the brain is being built, when its anatomy is still changing in profound ways, as in the case of adolescence.

A

developmental plasticity

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76
Q

T: Relatively minor changes in brain circuits as a result of experiences during adulthood, after the brain has matured.(doesn’t fundamentally change brain structure like developmental plas but learns new things)

A

adult plasticity

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77
Q

…. is

critical to shaping the brain during adolescence

A

Environment, experience

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78
Q

what did the study find that looked at the gene that determines degree of plasticity how does that gene interact with parenting practices

A

for boys in particular the more plasticity allels he carried the more likely unsupportive parenting practices lessen your self reg skills and more likely positive parenting practices increase self regulation= genetic makeup can determine how much their self regulation is influenced by enviro

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79
Q

Presence of gene = plasticity x …

A

interaction with experiences

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80
Q

carrying plasticity gene does what when paired with poor parenting

A

amplifies effect on self regulation but also amplifies for positive parenting

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81
Q

carrying plasticity gene does what when paired with poor parenting

A

amplifies effect on self regulation but also amplifies for positive parenting

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82
Q

during adolescence what area of the brain goes through the most dramatic changes

A

PFC

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83
Q

Adolescent brain is “remodeled” through
… (reflected in the thickening of the cortex, thinning of grey matter) and …. (reflected in increases in white matter) in particular brain regions.

A

synaptic pruning (unnessasary neurons)
myelination
(efficiency in info processing)

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84
Q

improved connectivity between Frontal cortex and limbic system explains what

A

processing of emotions, social info improves

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85
Q

Two important changes in brain function involving the prefrontal cortex (PFC) that leads greater info processing efficiency

A

Patterns of activation within PFC generally become more focused. n Activity in the PFC becomes increasingly coordinated with
activity in other parts of the brain. e.g. limbic

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86
Q

Performance on measures of …improves steadily during the first part of adolescence.

A

advanced thinking, or “executive function,”

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87
Q

The maturation of functional connectivity is more or less complete by age …

A

22

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88
Q

in adolescences Changes in how the brain is affected by certain neurotransmitters. which 2

A

dopamine and seretonin

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89
Q

T: NT with role in experience of reward

A

dopamine

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90
Q

T: (role in experience of different moods)

A

seretonin

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91
Q

Changes in limbic system may make individuals more resilient

A

f more vulnerable

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92
Q

how do Changes in limbic system may make individuals more vulnerable 4

A

More emotional.
n More responsive to stress.
n More likely to engage in reward-seeking and sensation-seeking behavior.
n More vulnerable to substance abuse, depression, and other mental health problems.

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93
Q

The age onset of most common psychiatric disorders is somewhere between the ages of … and …- why?

A

10 and 20.

heightened limbic system increases vulnerability

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94
Q

changes to limbic system happen when in adolescences

A

early before development of PFC

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95
Q

Limbic system before PFC -> implications?

A

seeking rewards, novelty before brain systems in change of decision making and impulse control develop
explains risk taking behaviours

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96
Q

Changes in the social brain during adolescence have both costs and benefits … what are the costs

A

more self-conscious and embarrassed

sensitivity to social cues and social evaluation = susceptibility to peer pressure

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97
Q

Today, the most widely used measures to assess

intelligence are …

A

intelligence tests.

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98
Q

individual differences in adolescents intelligence is important because

A

intelligence improves dramatically in adol

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99
Q

what does IQ stand for

A

Intelligence quotient

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100
Q

… assessed by traditional IQ tests increase dramatically through childhood and adolescence.

A

`Mental abilities

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101
Q

youth learn best when

A

when stimulated to reach a little further than they can grasp

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102
Q

Vygotsky emphasized … in which intellectual development occurs

A

context

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103
Q

T: what a kid can do with help

A

Zone of Proximal Development

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104
Q

its the role of the instructor to create opportunities that challenge students. to provide stepping stool for students to reach potential :T

A

scaffolding (our learning can be changed by enviro)

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105
Q

T: Involves such cognitive activities as thinking about people, social relationships, and social institutions.

A

social cognition

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106
Q

Adolescents’ conceptions of interpersonal relationships become more mature. in what 3 ways

A

Understanding of human behavior is more advanced.
n Ideas about social institutions and organizations are more
complex.
n Ability to figure out what other people think is more accurate.

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107
Q

Research on social cognition in adolescence falls into four categories:

A

Theory of mind
n Thinking about social relationships
n Understanding social conventions
n Conceptions of laws, civil liberties, and rights

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108
Q

the ability to take on others perspective :T

A

theory of mind or mentalizing

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109
Q

adolescences social cognition doesn’t just change the ways in which they think about people but also…

A

the way they think of society= more civic investment

these skills teach them they can challenge convention and they have the potential to change things

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110
Q

risk taking is common in adolescence. problem?

A

result in behaviours and accidents that can be prevented

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111
Q

how did the part of the brain that responds to reward (nucleus accumbans) differ in adolescents

A

peak in adolescents then dips back down in adulthood

brain heightened to reward during adolescence

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112
Q

what roles do peers play in risk taking

A

they reinforce it- when doing risk taking task alone less likely to take risks but when told friends were watching they would take risk even when reward is low = group influence

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113
Q

T: Decision making is rational and individuals try to maximize benefits of alternative courses of action and minimize costs.

A

behavioural decision theory

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114
Q

can behavioural decision theory explain for adolescents risk taking

A

no they are aware of risks,

heightened sensation seeking and still developing self-control but context matters!

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115
Q

adolescents are only risker drivers when with peers than when they have adult passengers.

A

f adolescents on average are riskier drivers than adults, but also Youth drive more recklessly when they are alone or with peers than when they have adult passengers.

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116
Q

youth behave in risky ways because of faulty decision making

A

f because of Dif values and priorities Adolescents and adults evaluate the desirability of possible consequences differently. e.g. social consequences more weight vs adults health risk

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117
Q

how can we message adolescences to prevent risk

A

convince them that the reward is small not the cost is small

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118
Q

Adolescents may be more attuned to the … than adults are.

A

potential rewards

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119
Q

5 ways adolescences thinking is more advanced

A
  1. can think beyond what is real= thinking of possibilities
  2. can think abstractly
  3. can think about thinking
  4. multidimensional rather than limited to single issue
  5. see things as relative rather than absolute
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120
Q

for the child, what is possible is what is real; for the adolescent, what is real …

A

is just a subset of what is possible

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121
Q

thinking of what is possible beyond our reality allows adolescents to think “…”—to think not only about how things actually are, but to think about what might have been

A

counterfactually

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122
Q

in adol you are who you are

A

f who you are is just one possibility of who you could be.

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123
Q

The adolescent’s ability to reason systematically in terms of what is possible comes in handy when learning …2

A

math and science.

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124
Q

Although many parents believe that their children become more argumentative during adolescence, what is more likely going on is that …

A

the cognitive changes of the period enable them to be better arguers

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125
Q

children are unable to conceive of things being different from what they observe

A

f But adolescents are able to move easily between the actual and the possible, to generate alternative possibilities and explanations systematically, and to compare the ways things are with the way they might be under different circumstances.

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126
Q

T: A type of logical reasoning in which one draws logically necessary conclusions from a general set of premises, or givens.

A

deductive reasoning

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127
Q

One manifestation of the adolescent’s increased facility with thinking about possibilities is the development of …

A

deductive reasoning.

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128
Q

All hockey players wear mouth guards.
Kim is a hockey player.
Does Kim wear a mouth guard? how do deductive reasoners answer this

A

ndividuals who reason deductively understand that the correct conclusion (Kim wears a mouth guard) necessarily follows from the first two statements

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129
Q

All hockey players wear mouth guards.
Kim is wearing a mouth guard.
Is Kim a hockey player?

A

adolescents are more likely to say that there is no way of knowing whether Kim plays hockey, because we are not told that the only people who wear mouth guards are hockey players.

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130
Q

why are adol better able to answer the hockey q

A

One reason for their superior performance on these sorts of problems is that adolescents are better able to catch themselves before they incorrectly answer the question and pause a moment before responding (controlling actions brain area develops)

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131
Q

T: if then thinking

A

hypothetical thinking

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132
Q

what does hypothetical thinking require

A

you need to see beyond what is directly observable and apply logical reasoning to anticipate what might be possible. Being able to plan ahead, to see the future consequences of an action, and to provide alternative explanations of events
suspend beliefs about something to think abstractly

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133
Q

why does playing devils advocate require hypothetical thinking

A

permits us to understand the logic behind another person’s argument without necessarily agreeing with it

134
Q

Hypothetical thinking also has implications for the adolescent’s social behavior. how

A

Taking the perspective of others enables the adolescent to think through what someone else might be thinking or feeling (“If I were in her situation, I’d be pretty angry”)

135
Q

hypothetical thinking plays an important role in decision making, because i…

A

t permits us to plan ahead and foresee the consequences of choosing one alternative over another

136
Q

T: things that cannot be experienced directly through the senses.

A

abstract concepts

137
Q

The growth of … during adolescence is directly related to the young person’s improving ability to think abstractly.

A

social thinking

138
Q

T: The process of thinking about thinking itself.

A

metacognition

139
Q

e.g. of metacognition

A

when you consciously use a strategy for remembering something
make sure you’ve understood something you’re reading before going on to the next paragraph

140
Q

Because adolescents are better at thinking about their own thoughts, they are much better at …

A

monitoring their own learning

141
Q

Brain systems that are active when individuals are … continue to mature throughout adolescence and early adulthood, which may help the development of metacognition

A

monitoring their own performance

142
Q

how does metacognition help with identity

A

Thinking about thinking also leads to increased introspection and self-consciousness.

143
Q

problems of metacognition ?

A

adolescent egocentrism

144
Q

Adolescent egocentrism results in two distinct problems in thinking

A
  1. imaginary audience

personal fable

145
Q

parts of the brain that process ….—undergo significant change during early adolescence, just when self-consciousness is increasing

A

social information—such as perceptions of what others are thinking

146
Q

what is imaginary audience

A

comes from having such a heightened sense of self-consciousness that you imagine that your behavior is the focus of everyone else’s attention

147
Q

Brain imaging studies indicate that adolescents’ self-perceptions rely more than adults’ on …

A

what they believe others think of them

148
Q

pros of personal fable

A

Maintaining a personal fable of uniqueness has some benefits, in that it enhances adolescents’ self-esteem and feelings of self-importance.

149
Q

cons of personal fable

A

But holding on to a personal fable also can be dangerous: think about a sexually active adolescent who believes that pregnancy simply won’t happen to her, or a reckless driver who believes that he will defy the laws of nature by taking hairpin turns at breakneck speed

150
Q

T: An adolescent’s belief that he or she is unique and therefore not subject to the rules that govern other people’s behavior.

A

personal fable

151
Q

the personal fable persists into adulthood

A

t

152
Q

The ability to think in multidimensional terms means what

A

adolescents can see things through more complicated lenses

153
Q

Adolescents can give much more complicated answers than children to questions such as “Why did the Civil War begin?” or “How did Jane Austen’s novels reflect the changing position of women in European society?”= why these questions

A

because many factors led to the Civil War, just as many factors affected the way in which people reacted to Austen’s work.

154
Q

The development of a more sophisticated understanding of … is also made possible by an improved ability to think in multiple dimensions.

A

probability

155
Q

As is the case with other gains in cognitive ability, the ability of individuals to think in multiple dimensions also has consequences outside of school.

A

more complicated and sophisticated self concepts and relationships
Adolescents describe themselves and others in more complicated terms (“I’m shy with strangers, but extroverted with people once I’ve met them”) and find it easier to look at problems from multiple perspectives (“I know that’s the way you see it, but try to look at it from her point of view”)

156
Q

which adol thinking development enables sarcasm satire, metaphor

A

Adolescents’ ability to look at things in multiple dimensions
a combination of what is said, how it is said, and the context in which it is said.

157
Q

Compared to children, adolescents are more likely to question others’ assertions and less likely to accept “facts” as absolute truths. what is this a function of adol thinking devel

A

adol relativism

158
Q

how does relativism cause parent conflict

A

who may feel as though their teenagers question everything just for the sake of argument.
adolescents begin seeing parents’ values that they had previously considered absolutely correct (“Moral people do not have sex before they are married”) as completely relative (“Welcome to the twenty-first century, Dad”).

159
Q

there is general agreement that adolescents’ thinking is more advanced than children’s, there is far less consensus about the processes underlying this advantage why 2

A

no one single factor distinguishes thinking during adolescence from thinking during childhood
different points of view that theorists have taken toward cognitive development in general

160
Q

Two theoretical viewpoints that have been especially important in adol thinking development are the…2

A

Piagetian perspective and the information-processing perspective

161
Q

Theorists who adopt a Piagetian perspective take a … view of intellectual development

A

cognitive-developmental

162
Q

how does the Piagetian view the difference between child and adol cognition

A

cognitive development proceeds through a fixed sequence of qualitatively distinct stages, that adolescent thinking is fundamentally different from the type of thinking employed by children, and that during adolescence, individuals develop a special type of thinking that they use across a variety of situations.

163
Q

T: A perspective on development, based on the work of Piaget, that takes a qualitative, stage-theory approach.

A

cognitive developmental view

164
Q

what are Piagets four stages of cog devel and the age it occurs

A

(1) the sensorimotor period (from birth until about age 2), (2) the preoperational period (from about age 2 until about age 5), (3) the period of concrete operations (from about age 6 until early adolescence), and (4) the period of formal operations (from adolescence through adulthood)

165
Q

Piagetian theorists believe that … is the chief feature that differentiates adolescent thinking from that of children

A

abstract logical reasoning

166
Q

being able to think hypothetically, multidimensionally, and abstractly. The connection between these skills and the development of formal operations is clear:

A

you need a system of reasoning that works just as well in hypothetical situations as it does in actual ones. to do all these things

167
Q

very little research supports the idea that cognitive development proceeds in a stage-like fashion and that there is a qualitatively unique stage of thinking that is characteristic of adolescence

A

t

168
Q

if PIAGEts stages is wrong what is actually happening

A

advanced reasoning capabilities develop gradually and continuously from childhood through adolescence and beyond, in more of a steady fashion than was proposed by Piaget

169
Q

advanced reasoning capabilities as … that are employed by older children more often than by younger ones, by some adolescents more often than by others, and by individuals when they are in certain situations (especially … ones) more often than when they are in other ones

A

skills, familiar

170
Q

Just what is it about the ways adolescents think about things that makes them better problem solvers than children? This question has been the focus of researchers working from the …

A

information-processing perspective.

171
Q

IPP: A perspective on cognition that derives from the study of artificial intelligence and attempts to explain cognitive development in terms of the … (such as …).

A

growth of specific components of the thinking process

172
Q

Studies of changes in specific components of information processing have focused on four areas in which improvement occurs during adolescence: …

A

attention, memory, processing speed, and organization.

173
Q

what helps adolescents be better able than children to concentrate and stay focused on complicated tasks, such as reading and comprehending difficult material.

A

attention improvements and the ability to inhibit an unwanted response

174
Q

attention improvements and the ability to inhibit an unwanted response these improvements is likely linked to maturation of brain systems that govern …

A

impulse control

175
Q

T: The process by which we focus on one stimulus while tuning out another.

A

selective attention

176
Q

T: The process of paying attention to two or more stimuli at the same time.

A

divided attention

177
Q

3 parts of memory that improve

A

working, long term and autobiographical memory

178
Q

autobiographical memory, find that our earliest memories, some of which we lose during childhood, stabilize sometime during early adolescence, when most people can remember back to when they were about …

A

2.5 yo

179
Q

what is the reminiscence bump

A

Adults generally remember details about the people, places, and events they encountered during adolescence better than those from other years

180
Q

the rem bump is due to better memory in adol

A

f The reminiscence bump does not appear to result from better memory, because basic memory abilities remain strong until midlife. (Nor is it due to the fact that so many important events happen for the first time during adolescence)

181
Q

what explain rem bump then

A

brain regions responsible for strong emotions are especially sensitive during adolescence
(brain systems that govern emotion undergo dramatic change in adolescence. The reminiscence bump doesn’t exist because more emotional events take place in adolescence, but because ordinary events trigger stronger emotions.)

182
Q

which type of memory is most important for problem solving

A

working memory

183
Q

advances in working memory during adolescence has what brain function underpinnings

A

are linked to the ways in which these areas of the brain are organized and connected, which permits more efficient and powerful information processing

184
Q

adolescents who are frequent multitaskers preform better on working but worse on LT memory

A

f worse on both

185
Q

This increase in the speed of information processing occurs mainly in …

A

early adolescence (Processing speed does not change very much between middle adolescence and young adulthood)

186
Q

what are 4 information-processing gains in adolescence

A

organization speed memory attention

187
Q

adol are more likely to approach a problem with an appropriate strategy in mind and are more flexible in their ability to use different strategies in different situations- what aspect on info processing

A

organization

188
Q

how kids vs adol ask qs in game 20 Questions shows you what cognitive difference

A

organization

189
Q

do 15 year olds have the same cognitive abilities as adults

A

By the time they have turned 15, adolescents are just as proficient as adults in basic cognitive abilities (orking memory, attention, and logical reasoning abilities level off stop increasing)

190
Q

Is Cognitive Development Complete by Age 15?

A

still developing more sophisticated cognitive skills, such as thinking creatively, planning ahead or judging the relative costs and benefits of a risky decision and in the coordination of cognition and emotion, when feelings might interfere with logical reasoning

191
Q

improved intellectual functioning in adolescence is reflected in larger brain size

A

f the brain reaches its adult size by age 10

192
Q

what 2 areas of physical brain changes create improved adol brain func

A

changes in brain structure and function

193
Q

what tech advancements advanced our understanding of adol brain devel

A

various imaging techniques, especially functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI).

194
Q

A technique used to produce images of the brain, often while the subject is performing some sort of mental task. :T

A

fMRI

195
Q

T: A technique used to produce images of the brain that shows connections among different regions.

A

iffusion tensor imaging (DTI)

196
Q

T: The physical form and organization of the brain.

A

brain structure

197
Q

T: Patterns of brain activity.

A

brain function

198
Q

allows us to better understand how “communication” patterns linking different regions of the brain change with development- which brain imagining technique

A

DTI

199
Q

EEG can be used to examine changes in electrical activity—called …—in response to different stimuli or events

A

event-related potentials (ERPs)

200
Q

T: A technique for measuring electrical activity at different locations on the scalp.

A

electroencephalography (EEG)

201
Q

what is an ERP

A

Changes in electrical activity in areas of the brain in response to specific stimuli or events.

202
Q

Are Male and Female Brains Different?

A

genders in brain structure and function are very small and unlikely to explain differences between males and females in the way they behave or think

203
Q

male brains are about 10% larger so they are smarter

A

f no relationship bw size and function

204
Q

here are few consistent sex differences in the size of specific brain regions or structures

A

t

205
Q

connections between pubertal hormones and brain development?

A

). It is clear that the structure of the brain is changed by exposure to sex hormones, but the ways in which the brains of adolescent boys and girls differ as a result of sex hormones is enormously complicated

206
Q

different patterns of … between brain regions in males and females have been found

A

connections

207
Q

The brain functions by transmitting electrical signals across circuits that are composed of interconnected cells, called ..

A

.neurons

208
Q

In the adult brain, each neuron has about …connections

A

10,000

209
Q

what is grey matter

A

neurons and the projections that connect them are called “gray matter.”

210
Q

Everything we think, perceive, feel, or do depends on the what happening in the brain n

A

flow of electrical impulses across the brain’s circuits.

211
Q

There is a tiny gap, called a …, between the tip of one neuron’s axon and another neuron’s dendrite.

A

synapse

212
Q

T:

Specialized chemicals that carry electrical impulses between neurons.

A

NT

213
Q

how do NT systems help the brain stay organized

A

Each neurotransmitter has a specific molecular structure that fits into a receptor for which it is precisely designed= brain circuits

214
Q

how are synapses developed

A

partially genetically programmed partially though experience

215
Q

The more a … is used, the stronger its electrical pathway becomes.

A

synapse

216
Q

At 1 year of age, the number of synapses in the infant brain is about twice the number in the adult brain- what is this the result of

A

synaptic pruning

217
Q

what does synaptic printing help with

A

improving the efficiency of information processing.

218
Q

what happens to grey matter during synaptic pruning

A

Synaptic pruning results in a decrease in the amount of gray matter in the brain

219
Q

When we plot the density of synapses over time, a series of ∩-shaped curves that peak at different ages, depending on the specific region of the brain- why

A

because different regions are pruned at different ages- development of synapses is characterized by a period of growth (when more and more synapses are created) followed by a period of decline (when more and more synapses are pruned)

220
Q

Cells other than neurons also play a role in transmitting electrical impulses along brain circuits what are these

A

These cells, known as “white matter,” provide support and protection for neurons and compose a fatty substance, called myelin, that surrounds the axons of certain neurons

221
Q

when does the growth of myelin occur

A

myelination, occurs in waves, beginning before birth and continuing into young adulthood

222
Q

what happens to malleability of brain in adol

A

it is more easily shaped, for better or for worse, by experience during adolescence than at any time other than the first few years of life= age of opportunity

223
Q

The brain’s remarkable malleability in response to experience enables us to learn and strengthen abilities, from very basic ones (like memory) to very advanced ones (like planning ahead) supporting use it or loose it hypothesis

A

“use it and improve it.”

224
Q

There are two types of brain plasticity: …2

A

developmental and adult

225
Q

Relatively minor changes in brain circuits as a result of experiences during adulthood, after the brain has matured., allow for adult learning :T

A

adult plasticity (modification to existing circuits)

226
Q

T: Extensive remodeling of the brain’s circuitry in response to experiences during childhood and adolescence, while the brain is still maturing.

A

developmental plasticity

227
Q

how are adult and developmental plasticity different 3

A
  1. adult plasticity doesn’t fundamentally alter the neural structure of the brain, whereas developmental plasticity does
  2. brain systems are far less malleable during periods of adult plasticity than they are during periods of developmental plasticity
  3. because the developing brain is so much more malleable, it can be influenced by a far wider range of experiences than can the mature brain
228
Q

why do we have much more trouble learning to ski or surf as adults than as children and we don’t become better at seeing or hearing after we have matured beyond infancy

A

the developing brain is chemically predisposed to be modified by experiences, like clay when it is still soft, whereas the adult brain is predisposed to resist modification—like that same clay once it has hardened

229
Q

That means that before our brain has fully matured, we can be affected, in potentially permanent ways, by every experience compared to what in adulthood

A

requires intentionality (explains why we recall things from adolescence more easily than we do from adulthood.)

230
Q

… is what allows us to learn from experience, it enables us to adapt to the environment

A

plasticity

231
Q

why is plasticity in adol risky

A

during these times of heightened sensitivity, the brain is also more vulnerable to damage from physical harms, like drugs or environmental toxins, or psychological ones, like trauma and stress

232
Q

One part of the brain that is pruned dramatically in adolescence is the …

A

prefrontal cortex

233
Q

There is also continued myelination of the cortex throughout adolescence, which also leads to many cognitive advances- why

A

Myelination is stimulated by puberty and education

234
Q

Better connectivity between the prefrontal cortex and the limbic system, leads to improvements in our …

A

ability to regulate our emotions and coordinate our thoughts and feelings

235
Q

Structural maturation of the prefrontal cortex is not complete until the …

A

mid-20s

236
Q

3 jobs of limbic system

A

processing of emotional experience, social information, and reward and punishment.

237
Q

The two most important changes in brain function involving the prefrontal cortex in adolescence both lead to greater efficiency in information processing what are they

A

1 patterns of activation within the prefrontal cortex generally become more focused
2. individuals become more likely to use multiple parts of the brain simultaneously and coordinate activity between prefrontal regions and other areas

238
Q

patterns of activation within the prefrontal cortex generally become more focused- how do you see this play out in response inhibition

A

adolescents are less likely than children to activate prefrontal regions that are not relevant to performing the task well

239
Q

2 functions that improve as a result of patterns of activation within the prefrontal cortex generally become more focused

A

response inhibition and executive function

240
Q

T: More advanced thinking abilities, enabled chiefly by the maturation of the prefrontal cortex, especially in early adolescence.

A

executive function

241
Q

individuals become more likely to use multiple parts of the brain simultaneously and coordinate activity between prefrontal regions and other areas when is this especially imports

A

where the task demands may overtax the prefrontal cortex working alone, and especially on tasks that require self-control, where it is necessary to coordinate thinking and feeling

242
Q

adol perform better than when no such rewards are offered- why

A

their self control is stronger than external

243
Q

recruitment of multiple brain regions working as a “team,” referred to as functional connectivity, is made possible by the increase in …

A

physical connections between brain regions

244
Q

The maturation of functional connectivity is more or less complete by age …

A

22

245
Q

T: The extent to which multiple brain regions function at the same time, which improves during adolescence.

A

functional connectivity

246
Q

These changes, which are partly caused by puberty, make adolescents more emotional, more responsive to stress, more sensitive to rewards, and more likely to engage in sensation seeking than either children or adults. what are these changes

A

changes, especially in the limbic system, in the ways in which the brain is affected by certain neurotransmitters like seretonin and dopamine

247
Q

NT sensitivity can be bad- why

A

They are also thought to increase individuals’ vulnerability to substance abuse, because they seek higher levels of reward; to depression, because of their increased vulnerability to stress; and to other mental health problems, because of their easily aroused emotions, including anger, anxiety, and sadness
increase in emotional reactivity is an increase in adolescents’ sensitivity to feeling threatened, which may prompt some adolescents to lash out at others or deliberately seek out experiences that are frightening

248
Q

what does dopamine regulate

A

reward

249
Q

what is seretonin involved in

A

moods

250
Q

when in adol do limbic vs prefrontal cortex changes occur

A

limbic early

prefrontal later

251
Q

is limbic or prefrontal changes tied to puberty

A

Unlike the changes that occur in the limbic system, which have been directly linked to the impact of pubertal hormones on the brain, the development of cognitive control is more or less independent of puberty

252
Q

adolescents’ sensitivity to reward is always maladaptive

A

f it may lead others to explore the environment in ways that lead them to engage in prosocial behavior, to learn new skills, to be flexible, and to increase their knowledge of the world

253
Q

what are the regions of the social brain network 5

A

dorsal medial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC) and temporoparietal junction (TPJ), the posterior superior temporal sulcus (pSTS), the anterior temporal cortex (ATC), inferior frontal gyrus (IFG),

254
Q

Social brain regions: match with function:….2 which are involved in thinking about mental states; the …. which is involved in observing faces and biological motion; …, which is involved in applying social knowledge; and the … which is involved in understanding the actions and emotions of others.

A

dorsal medial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC) and temporoparietal junction (TPJ),
posterior superior temporal sulcus (pSTS),
the anterior temporal cortex (ATC)
inferior frontal gyrus (IFG),

255
Q

In one study that tested individuals’ ability to exercise response inhibition, adolescents had a harder time controlling themselves than either children or adults when responding to pictures showing peers having a good time- why

A

their developing social brain

256
Q

being observed by a friend interfered with adolescents’ cognitive performance but also adults

A

f but had no such effect on adults

257
Q

downside of social brain devel?

A

people become more self-conscious. Adolescents report feeling embarrassed more often than either children or adults

258
Q

The increase in sex hormones at puberty appears to play a role in influencing this increase in sensitivity to others’ facial expressions- why does this make sense evolutionarily

A

If your goal is to find a willing sex partner, it helps to pay close attention to other peoples’ facial expressions

259
Q

sensitivity to others’ mental states increases during adolescence, a change that also is reflected in changes in patterns of brain activity when individuals observe others. is this reflected in all teens

A

f that adolescents vary in how sensitive they are to the influence of others—some are highly aware of the social world, whereas others are close to oblivious

260
Q

pros and cons of attentiveness to others mental states

A

pro (it may make teenagers more socially skilled
cons: makes adolescents more easily distracted by others’ emotional expressions = won’t listen to message behind angry tone from parents

261
Q

brain structure changes in adol cause behaviour changes

A

not necessarily behaviour also influences brain development

262
Q

… of a specific collection of neurons as a result of engaging in a particular behavior will actually result in structural changes that strengthen the connections among those neurons, which in turn will make them function more efficiently.

A

Repeated activation

263
Q

when adolescents start to think like adults

A

the answer depends on which aspects of thinking or brain development one is concerned about

264
Q

When it comes to relatively more sophisticated cognitive abilities, when does development stop

A

capabilities are still developing well after individuals enter their 20s

265
Q

when 18- to 21-year-olds are …., their cognitive performance and brain activity resembles that of teenagers, but that under more calming conditions, young adults look more like people in their mid-20s

A

emotionally aroused

266
Q

How large are individual differences in intelligence in adolescence?

A

?

267
Q

The WISC-IV and the WAIS-III intelligence tests are divided into what 2 groups

A

verbal tests and arithmetic abilities

268
Q

The WISC-IV and the WAIS-III intelligence tests are divided into what 2 groups

A

verbal tests and performance tests

269
Q

T: measures of memory, perceptual reasoning, and picture completion

A

performance tests

270
Q

there is a link between intelligence and brain development what is it

A

More intelligent adolescents have a more dramatic and longer period of production of synapses before adolescence and a more dramatic pruning of them after and more connection bw brain regions, longer periods of plasticity

271
Q

the researchers used brain imaging to construct a “….,” which quantified how mature the brain’s circuitry was

A

brain development index

272
Q

Individuals with advanced brain development scores performed more accurately on tests of cognitive ability, including various tests of attention, memory, and reasoning

A

f significantly faster although not necessarily more accurately

273
Q

There is strong evidence that differences among individuals in performance on brain development index tests are largely (although not entirely) … in nature

A

genetic in nature

274
Q

Mental abilities assessed by conventional IQ tests go through what pattern of development through adol

A

increase dramatically through childhood and adolescence, reaching a plateau sometime in mid-to-late adolescence

275
Q

when should interventions for Intellect be undertaken

A

mid adol

276
Q

how does extended schooling influence IQ

A

research shows that extended schooling during adolescence itself enhances individuals’ performance on standardized tests of intelligence

277
Q

Vygotsky argued that children and adolescents learn best in everyday situations when they …

A

.encounter tasks that are neither too simple nor too advanced, but just slightly more challenging than their abilities permit them to solve on their own

278
Q

what did Vygotsky highlight the importance of in intelligence

A

context

279
Q

T: In Vygotsky’s theory, the level of challenge that is still within the individual’s reach but that forces an individual to develop more advanced skills.

A

zone of proximal development

280
Q

Structuring a learning situation so that it is just within the reach of the student. :T

A

scaffolding

281
Q

how does challenge relate to brain plasticity

A

novelty and challenge are key to maintaining the brain’s plasticity

282
Q

Some research suggests that learning certain skills may be easier in late adolescence than early adolescence, what does this tell us

A

which suggests that the window of opportunity created by heightened brain plasticity may be open longer than one might think

283
Q

T: The aspect of cognition that concerns thinking about other people, about interpersonal relations, and about social institutions.

A

social cognition

284
Q

Individual differences in … abilities also help explain why some adolescents have more social problems than others

A

social cognitive

285
Q

4 most commonly studied areas of social cognition

A

(1) theory of mind; (2) thinking about social relationships; (3) understanding social conventions; and (4) conceptions of laws, civil liberties, and rights

286
Q

T: The ability to understand that others have beliefs, intentions, and knowledge that may be different from one’s own

A

theory of mind

287
Q

theory of mind is supported by brain systems that allow for …

A

mentalizing

288
Q

what is mentalizing

A

The ability to understand someone else’s mental state.

289
Q

why do adol get better at lying

A

Adolescents also become better at lying as a result of these improvements in social cognition and theory of mind

290
Q

adol are equally able to take on the perspective of all people

A

f They are especially able to take the perspective of someone the same age

291
Q

how does theory of mind help adol

A

lead to improvements in communication, because they become more capable of formulating arguments in terms that are more likely to be understood by someone whose opinion is different.

292
Q

Improvements in …lead to changes in the way that adolescents think about relationships with peers and parents.

A

mentalizing

293
Q

how does advancements in adol thinking cause exclusion

A

take more things into consideration

294
Q

adolescents generally believe that social exclusion on the basis of gender orientation, nationality, race, or ethnicity is wrong

A

t

295
Q

Changes in adolescents’ understanding of social relationships also transform their beliefs about …, which has important implications for their relationships with parents and other adults

A

authority

296
Q

adolescents invariably come to reject the authority of adults

A

f adolescents increasingly distinguish between issues that authority figures have the right to regulate and issues that are their own personal choices

297
Q

Issues that had been viewed as matters of right and wrong start to seem like matters of….and, as such, beyond the bounds of parental authority

A

personal choice

298
Q

One main source of conflict between adolescents and their parents involves which ….

A

issues parents have legitimate authority over and which they do not.

299
Q

how are social conventions viewed in middle childhood

A

seen as arbitrary and changeable, but adherence to them is not; compliance with such conventions is based on rules and on the dictates of authority

300
Q

how do adol view social conventions

A

young adolescents often see social conventions as nothing but social expectations and, consequently, as insufficient reasons for compliance.

301
Q

T: The norms that govern everyday behavior in social situations.

A

social conventions

302
Q

how do opinions on social conventions change as we age

A

Gradually, however, adolescents begin to see social conventions as the means by which society regulates people’s behavior: individuals come to see that social conventions help to coordinate interactions among people.

303
Q

Several themes cut across the research findings from studies of different aspects of social cognition—the way we think about people, relationships, conventions, and rights- what are they

A

better at tep outside themselves and see things from other vantage points

  1. see social rules as subject to debate not absolute
  2. adolescents develop a more differentiated, more nuanced understanding of social norms.
304
Q

Several themes cut across the research findings from studies of different aspects of social cognition—the way we think about people, relationships, conventions, and rights- what are they 3

A

better at tep outside themselves and see things from other vantage points

  1. see social rules as subject to debate not absolute
  2. adolescents develop a more differentiated, more nuanced understanding of social norms.
305
Q

adolescents become increasingly likely to believe that there are some freedoms—like freedom of speech and freedom of religion—that are subject to restriction

A

f should not be restricted

306
Q

social cognition encompasses all that is involved in social competence

A

f there is more to social competence than social cognition

307
Q

The main health problems of adolescence are the result of behaviors that can be prevented- what is this the result of

A

adol risk taking

308
Q

T: An approach to understanding adolescent risk taking, in which behaviors are seen as the outcome of systematic decision-making processes.

A

behaviour decision theory

309
Q

5 steps of anylzing the outcome of a behaviour according to behaviour decision theory

A

(1) identifying alternative choices, (2) identifying the consequences that might follow from each choice, (3) evaluating the costs and benefits of each possible consequence, (4) assessing the likelihood of each possible consequence, and (5) combining all this information according to some decision rule

310
Q

why won’t educating adolescents in how to make “better” decisions is not likely to reduce risk taking

A

because adolescents, at least by the time they are 15 or so, have the same basic cognitive abilities as adults so what explains their risky behaviours (they are = in risk perception)

311
Q

research indicates that adolescents vary far more than adults in how they … risk—words like “probably,” “likely,” or “a very low chance”—suggesting that health educators and practitioners should not take for granted that an adolescent’s understanding of a message about risk is what the educator thinks it is

A

interpret words and phrases used to describe

312
Q

why more risky behaviour in adol then

A

different values and priorities that adolescents and adults have
more attuned to rewards
emotional and contextual factors

313
Q

adol more attuned to rewards is related to what brain region

A

limbic system

314
Q

adolescents underestimate the likelihood of getting pregnant following unprotected sex, sex education efforts might focus on teaching teenagers the …

A

actual probability.

315
Q

adolescents may differ from adults in important ways that are not captured by measures of logical reasoning, such as …4

A

susceptibility to peer pressure, impulsivity, orientation to the present rather than the future, or reward seeking

316
Q

when is adol decision making as good as adults

A

when individuals are tested under calm conditions, but that the quality of adolescents’ decision making declines more than adults’ when they are emotionally aroused or fatigued

317
Q

reason that middle adolescence is a period of heightened risk taking is that it is a period characterized by a combination of …2

A

high sensation seeking and high impulsivity

318
Q

why more risk taking with boys

A

because of the impact of testosterone on sensation seeking

319
Q

T: The pursuit of experiences that are novel or exciting.

A

sensation seeking

320
Q

3 contexts that increase risk taking

A

emotionally aroused

unsupervised and around peers

321
Q

that having their mother around actually increases activation in adolescents’ reward centers when they are making safe decisions, but decreases it when they are making risky ones

A

t

322
Q

when does driving with peer make it more dangerous (at what ages)

A

increases the risk of crashes dramatically among 16- and 17-year-old drivers, significantly among 18- and 19-year-old drivers, and not at all among adults

323
Q

why more crashes when young

A

adolescent passengers can be distracting to new drivers and because adolescents are simply more likely to take risks in the presence of peers
in the presence of their peers, adolescents may pay more attention to the potential rewards of a risky decision than they do when they are alone

324
Q

several theorists have proposed models of adolescent risk taking that consider the ways in which two different thinking systems—…2, and one that is intuitive and gut-level—interact to influence behavior

A

one that is deliberative and logical

325
Q

the development of logical thinking may differentiate adolescents from children, the main change to take place between adolescence and adulthood is not the further development of …

A

logical decision making (development of intuitive decision making that is based on experience)

326
Q

What stops adults from taking a lot of risks is that they are good at systematically analyzing the probabilities of various outcomes

A

f , but because they get a gut-level feeling that keeps them away from the risky act

327
Q

improvements in deliberative decision-making abilities are associated with more, not less, risk taking

A

t

328
Q

does increasing edu around a risk reduce adol behaviour

A

no

329
Q

enabling adolescents to make more accurate determinations of risk may inadvertently increase risky behavior, why

A

because the actual probabilities of something bad happening after engaging in a risky act are actually very small

330
Q

adolescents are more likely than adults to be swayed by their …than by information alone

A

personal experiences

331
Q

alternative approach to preventing adol risk?

A

might focus on limiting adolescents’ opportunities to put themselves in risky situations.
economic policies (increasing costs)
make risky things harder for adolescents to obtain
increase penalties
safe outlets for sensation seeking

332
Q

graduated driver licensing, which phases adolescent drivers into full unrestricted driving privileges over time, lowers the incidence of fatal crashes involving 16-year-old drivers but what is the problem still

A

, although it appears to increase the incidence of crashes among 18-year-olds

336 (13 decks)

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