Chapter 8

Question 1

identify and explain the three tenets of evolutionary psychology

Answer 1

domain specificity - adaptations are presumed to be domain specific because they are designed by evolution process to solve a specific adaptive problem (ie. food selection as a problem - eat everything would be maladaptive because you wouldn’t eat nourishing things, mechanisms influenced by evo process are specialized which is why we want to eat calorically rich fat and sugar). different adaptive problems need different solutions (ie. food choice doesnt dictate mate choice). selection tends to fashion somewhat specialized mechanisms for adaptive problems

numerousness - we have numerous adaptive mechanisms because ancestors had many different adaptive problems. ie. physio and anatomical mechanisms (liver detoxes and sweat regulates). psychological adaptations of what we fear, mate selection (detection of cheaters), forming strategic alliances, favouring of habitats.

functionality - the notion that our psychological mechanisms are designed to accomplish specific adaptive goals (ie, understanding preferences for mates, by understanding function as finding a healthy/fertile mate). involves identifying the specific adaptive problem for which the mechanism is an evolved solution

Question 2

what is meant by adaptive problem

Answer 2

anything that impedes survival or reproduction, or anything whose solution increases the odds of survival or reproduction. all adaptations must contribute to fitness during the period of time when they evolve by helping an organism survive, reproduce or facilitate the reproductive success of genetic relatives

Question 3

use the lock and key analogy to explain why some adaptations are no longer useful following a change in the environment

Answer 3

adaptations are like keys that only fit specific locks. the picky parts of the key (adaptation) show specific design features that mesh with specific mirror image elements in the lock (adaptive problem). therefore adaptations are meant to go with specific parts of the adaptive problem, and all adaptations must contribute to fitness during the period of time in which they evolve by helping an organism survive, reproduce, or facilitate the reproductive success of genetic relatives.

Question 4

Theory by Darwin that proposed a process by which adaptations are created and change occurs over time. Species seem to produce many more offspring than what can survive and reproduce , and changes/variants helping an organism survive would lead to more descendants who would inherit the variants that helped ancestor survival and reproduction. successful variants were selected and unsuccessful were weeded out, resulting in changes in species over time. events impeding survival, hostile forces of nature, influenced variants adopted by species. for example, our preference for fatty sugary protein foods help in food shortages, immune system with antibodies protecting from diseases, and fears of animals.

Answer 4

natural selection

Question 5

evolution of characteristics due to their mating benefits, providing an advantage in competing for desirable mates. IE. big antlers, colourful feathers. include inter(mate chosen based on quality) and intersexual selection (combat winning sexual access)

Answer 5

sexual selection

Question 6

fight for mates, winner gets all the mates and gets to spread dna and have osspring, loser dn perishes

Answer 6

intrasexual selection

Question 7

mates choose based on their preferences for qualities, characteristics evolve because those having them are chosen more as mates and their genes thrive, while unchosen animals genes die.

Answer 7

intersexual selection

Question 8

the smallest discrete units that are inherited intact by offspring, are not broken up. inherited in distinct chunks

Answer 8

genes

Question 9

defined by reproductive success relative to others - genes or organisms that reproduce more than others get passed down to future generations more than those whose genes reproduce less. survival is critical for success so characteristics leading to more survival get passed along. so is success in mating. both success in mating competition and survival are paths to this. characteristics leading to more reproduction of genes that code for them are selected and evolve w time.

Answer 9

differential gene reproduction

Question 10

modern evolution theory based off differential gene reproduction. ability of organisms to survive and reproduce in whatever environment and the consequence of which is the conrinuation of genes in next generation. characteristics that facilitate reproduction dont need to affect to personal production of offspring, can affect survival and reproduction of genetic relatives like siblings and parents. ie. taking a personal risk to defend sibling, may enable them to better reproduce as you share genes with them, their survival will ensure your genes will likely be passed on. however, any cost to your reproduction from helping must be less than benefits bestowed upon your relative (ie, odds of saving must exceed twice odds of your death). ones personal reproductive success plus effects you have on reproduction of genetic relatives weighted by the degree of genetic relatedness.

Answer 10

inclusive fitness theory

Question 11

products of the evolutionary process(3)

Answer 11

adaptations - primary product of selective process a reliably developing structure in the organism which causes the solution to the adaptive problem because it meshes w the recurrent structure of the world. ie. taste for sweet and fat, drive to defend relatives, wanting healthy mate. allow the human to develop reliably. environments are always needed for development of it, and events can interfere or enhance. hallmarks include special design, components of specialized problem solving machinery that include factors like efficiency, precision and reliability.

byproducts of adaptations - unintended characteristics from the adaptation that may not occur purposely but as a consequence for its design. ie. nose is for smelling but we use it to hold up our glasses.

noise or random variations - random variations neutral regarding selection, not necessarily affecting the functioning of adaptations. ie. neutral variations in genes via mutation over generations that dont hinder functioning of adaptations

Question 12

how do evolutionary psychologists test their hypotheses?

Question 13

the top of the hierarchy of levels of evolution analysis. A theory that has been tested directly in many cases. ie. new species can be formed in the lab by its application and dogs can be selectively bred using its principles. because there has never been a case where evidence had indicated the general theory is incorrect, most scientists take it for granted and still go for more specific hypothesis testing

Answer 13

evolution by selection

Question 14

middle level evolutionary theory, where the sex that invests more in offspring is predicted to be more discriminating or “choose” about its mating partners. the sex that invests less in offspring is predicted to be more competitive with members of its own sex for sexual access to the high investing sex. herein, specific predictions can be derived and tested empirically. ie. women bear the heavy parental investment burdens of internal fertilization and nine month pregnancy, so should be more choosy with partners. two predictions :

Answer 14

the theory of parental investment and sexual selection

1. women will chose as mates men who are willing to invest resources in them and their kids
2. women will divorce men who fail to continue providing

Question 15

three mid level evolutionary theories

Answer 15

theory of reciprocal altruism
theory of parental investment and sexual selection
theory of parasite host co evolution

Question 16

if research data fails to support the predications and hypothesis, then the ____ level theory from which they were derived is questioned. if findings support predictions and hypothesis, then ____ level theory increases in credibility

Answer 16

middle, middle

Question 17

top down theory driven method of empirical research in evolution psych. a phenomenon is first observed, then researchers make a theory ti fit them. ie. notice men are more aggressive than women, even though evolution theory predicted this we can theorize it.

Answer 17

deductive reasoning

Question 18

bottom up data driven method of research in evolution psych

Answer 18

inductive reasoning approach

Question 19

the dual inductive and deductive approaches can be applied to evolution theories and personality theories

Answer 19

f - only personality theories

Question 20

theory that proposed sexual aggression against women was because of deprivation of sexual access to women. later evidence has failed to support it - men who have a hard time attracting women are no more likely to use aggression than men who can, so it seems fake

Answer 20

mate deprivation hypothesis

Question 21

identify the most important social problems faced by ancestors

Question 22

explain how evolutionary psychologists account for the need to belong, helping and altruism, and the universal recognition of facial expressions

Answer 22

need to belong - accounted for by establishing cooperative relations with group members and negotiating hierarchies. communial motives and cooperation, and how ostracization was and still is damaging so social anxiety was developed to prevent this. groups could allow for sharing food, info, protection, finding mates and kin. outer conflict fuels cohesion, and acquiring resources triggers cohesion

helping and altruism - helping is a function of recipients ability to enhance inclusive fitness of the helpers. we are more likely to help those we are more genetically related to ,and who have more reproductive value.

universal emotion - across cultures people agree on what emotions correspond to which face (happy disgust fear anger contempt). even the Fore who have cultural disconnect recognize the emotions. emotions are universally expressed and recognized meaning it is a criterion for adaptation

Question 23

consider other traits that may compromise human nature (3)

Answer 23

empathy - by understanding experience from ones perspective, we are better at cooperating and steengthening social bonds

more destructive traits:
propensity for aggression and war - maybe due to lower expression of the ADRA2Cgene which inhibits f/f. may have evolved recently due to dealing with contact and conflict.

Narcissism - overestimate competence and ability

Question 24

in ww2 veterans, their strongest ties 40 years after the war were comrades who experienced combat together, indicating that external threats __ increase cohesion

Answer 24

can

Question 25

people who spend lots of time with others have ____ self esteem, and day to day fluctuations are linked to the ___ and ___ of social interactions cross culturally

Answer 25

higher, quality, quantity

Question 26

people who feel rejected or shunned by other experience causes 4 negative outcomes. researchers ____ linked pain circuitry in brain to being caused by social exclusion

Answer 26

worse health, high bp, higher stress and higher cortisol, have

Question 27

helping should ____ ,according to the hypothesis that helping is a direct function of recipients ability to enhance inclusive fitness of the helpers, as the degree of genetic relatedness decreases between helper and recipient (ie. help sibling or stranger)

Answer 27

decrease

Question 28

when asked to imagine in a famine like situation, ___year olds were helped less, ___ year olds were helped most, and as people aged onward from 10 to being 75, helping older people _____

Answer 28

1, 10, decreased

Question 29

explain when evolutionary psychology predicts that females and males will be the same and when they will be different

Question 30

identify and describe key sex differences supported by evolutionary psychology

Answer 30

females - childbirth mechanisms, securing reliable resources for pregnancy males - adaptive problem of uncertainty of paternity in offspring due to internal fertilization in female difference in minimum obligatory parental investment - females have to invest more evolutionary predicted sex differences -

Question 31

hold that sexes will differ in precisely those domains where females and males have faced different adaptive problems. evolutionary psychologists ask 3 questions about sex differences:

Answer 31

evolutionary predicted sex differences In what domains have females and males faced different adaptive problems? What are the sex-differentiated psychological mechanisms of males and females that have evolved in response to these sex-differentiated adaptive problems? Which social, cultural, and contextual inputs affect the magnitude of expressed sex differences?

Question 32

___ are overwhelmingly more often killers, and victims are also most often _____-. intersexual competition provides the foundation: ____ have been characterized by gaining sexual access to high-investing partners and competition

Answer 32

males, males, males

Question 34

the ___ the variance in sex production, the ____ ferocious competition in the sex that shows higher variance (ie. Californian elephant seals who have 85% of all offspring). high variance in reproduction with one sexu tend to be ___ ____, highly different in size/structure (ie. males being 4x bigger than females in seals, chimp males being smaller less dimporphic - 2x size, human males being mildly dimorphic being 12% larger than females)

Answer 34

higher, more, sexual dimorphism

Question 35

women who fear crime are more likely to want long term mates who ____ aggressive and physically formidable. Another study found that more muscular men had _____ sexual partners and _____ age of first time. a third study found that men who experienced aggressive victimization in teen years at hands of other guys have ____ sex partners

Answer 35

are, more, younger, less

Question 36

due to the history of ___ ___, where only a couple males father offspring and some not at all, males perpetrate violence ____ often as it is a byproduct of evolution. ____ are more often victims of aggression because they are in competition with others of same sex who can block access to mates

Answer 36

effective polygamy, more, men

Question 37

two views on interaction between jealousy and human evolution:

Answer 37

because fertilization happens inside females, males have risked investing in children who were not their own over evolution history. a reproductively damaging act from ancestral male poverty would-be if mate cheated, jeaprodizing his passing on of genes. concern for females is if partner behaviour puts her at risk for losing his resources time and commitment, not him having sex with other women. the attachment fe4rtility view - natural tendency for people to have many dependent children at one time along with high rates of maternal mortality suggests that parental involvement was key to reproductive success during evolution. large families and hard living conditions = offspring were more likely to survive if having 2 supporting parents. favours males who can develop close emo ties with kids and jealousy evolved to keep these bonds

Question 38

men get more jealous in response to ____ ____, while females are more jealous in response to _____

Answer 38

sexual infidelity, lack of commitment or commitment to someone else

Question 39

in a study where women ranked having resources as a higher incentive for mate and men ranked physical appearance as higher, both sexes also preferred and ranked these items at the top:

Answer 39

exciting personality kind and understanding kindness towards partner not necessarily toward others

Question 40

the four main evolutionary sources for individual differences and give an example of each

Answer 40

those that come from people having universal adaptations whose expression depends on environment - ie. calluses as a result of repeated friction on skin, activated by friction despite all people having callus forming abilities - childhood adversity has been associated with more of a neuroticism risk and negative affect, antisocial and violent tendencies (in children with MAOA gene leading to expressing less of this enzyme), less agreeableness -father presence matters, people with father absent homes will sexually mature early and do more risky things to produce offspring, extraverted and impulsive traits may accompany and facilitate this strategy, while people who have that support will view relationships as long term, delayed sex, and view people as reliable and trustworthy those due to frequency depending selection - reproductive success (fitness) depends on its frequency relative to others in pop - ie. a big population of cooperative people, selection may favour those with cheating as long as they are not too common, as cheater frequency gets common cooperators evolve to punish them. -ie. males and females existing in roughly equal numbers, if one gets rare, evolution will produce an increase in rare sex. -ie. man who is hot will be loved by many women and will be less likely to long term commit to one, so if selecting for genes women will have to settle -ie. unrestricted and restricted women evolve and maintain by freq dependent select ie. psychopathy, charm, impulsivity etc those coming from contingencies with other traits - ie. a temper may be good if one is big and strong not small and weak. - determining which social strategy to pursue based on personal characteristics (coop or aggressive) adaptive self assessment can =individual differences in aggression/coop, making traits dictating tendencies relatively heritable (secondary consequence) - strength and attractiveness have been found to predict extraversion -social dominance and assertiveness may become better as social status rises -depression may be maintained due to high adaptive contingencies among traits, like ruminating to solve the problem, attention and interest in sleeping/eating, which can help solve complex social dilemmas (food sharing and competing when food was scarce). those because of variation over time in the optimum value of a trait - ie. differences in abundance of food favour different traits (risk taking in scarcity, caution in abundance) -ie. adhd was considered more adaptive in certain environments compared to others (risk taking - migration 7R gene)

Question 41

explain the balancing section and explain what is meant by suggesting big 5 should be accompanied by both benefits and costs

Answer 41

heritable individual levels on the dimensions of the big 5 are kept in the population because different levels of each are adaptive under different conditions (optimum level varies over time and space). these personality differences are maintained by balancing selection (Penke et al., 2007), which occurs when genetic variation is maintained by selection because different levels on a trait are adaptive in different environments. there is no unconditionally optimal value of big 5 so each has benefits and costs (ie. extraversion - imprves mating and allies, but increase risk taking, neuroticism - more vigilance for threats but more prone to shorter life, chronic stress). most are clistered around the mean average of traits which is optimal over space and time.

Question 42

discuss the notion of "difference-detecting mechanisms" as they are relevant to the big 5 traits within an evolutionary context

Answer 42

the conceptualization of major factors of personality s clusters of the most important features of tye adaptive landscape of other people. people have special mechanisms designed to notice and remember individual differences that have the most relevance for solving adptove problems (friends chosing, hierarchy negotiation, coalition formation). five factor model may explain who is likely to rise and access social status (extraversion), who is dependable and will provide resources (conscientousness), who will drain my resources (emotional instability), who has good advice (openness), who will be cooperative and reciprocate and be loyal (agreeableness).

Question 43

t/f - body build/weight does not predict aggression among pro hockey players and young men. ____ men also believe in utility of war and get angry quicker

Answer 43

f - correlated w strength so it does, stronger

Question 44

_____ + ____ has been found to predict the trait of extraversion

Answer 44

strength and attractiveness

Question 45

says depression is triggered by complex social problems related to fitness and survival, and depression causes changes that promote rumination on the trigger in an attempt to solve it. why people eat/sleep, reducing likelihood of one being distracted by the problem. because therapy has been shown to help specifically problem solving versions, are the best at relieving depression suggesting that depression is triggered by a problem. depression activates the ___ which increases wm capacity to facilitate problem solving and lack of motor activity allows for cognitive resources to devote to rumination

Answer 45

analytical rumination hypothesis, left (VLPFC)

Question 46

marked by delayed intercourse and longer courtship to assess the commitment level of a man, detect prior comitments and signal sexual fidelity, usually used by women wanting a high investing mate

Answer 46

restricted sexual strategy

Question 47

seeking for quality genes has less of a reason to delay sex, committmnent is irrelevant. used by women who just want good genes

Answer 47

unrestricted mating strategy

Question 48

the success of each of the two strategies depends on how common each strategy is in the population. As a given strategy becomes more common, it becomes less successful; when it becomes less common, it becomes more successful.

Answer 48

frequency dependent selection

Question 49

t/f - individual differences in restricted vs unrestricted female mating strategy have nt been shown to be heritable

Answer 49

f - it is women who pursue unrestricted have placed more value on hotness good genes and good health, this strategy also flexible and shifts (ie. going restricted in rel then going unrestricted)

Question 50

a psychopathic strategy can be maintained by ____. As the number of cheaters increases, and hence the average cost to the cooperative hosts increases, adaptations will evolve in cooperators to detect and punish cheating, thus lowering its overall effectiveness (Price, Cosmides, & Tooby, 2002). As psychopaths are increasingly detected and punished, the average success of the strategy declines. As long as the frequency of psychopaths is not too large, however, it can be maintained in a population composed primarily of cooperators.

Answer 50

frequency dependent selection

Question 51

the Big Five _____ closely linked with solutions to these critical adaptive problems. In the context of romantic relationships, those who were high on ______, for example, were also judged to be highly cooperative, devoted to their partners, and in love with their partners. Those who were high on ____ were also judged to be socially ascendant, taking leadership roles in the group and showing proclivities to elevate themselves in social hierarchies. People highly responsible and efficient (signs of _____) were dependable in times of need, were well organized, and showed good potential for future earning.

Answer 51

are, agreeablenes, extraversion, conscientousness

Question 52

Explain what is meant by the statement, “humans live in a modern world with an ancient brain.” 

Answer 52

modern conditions are undoubtedly different from ancestral conditions in many respects, so that what was adaptive in the past might not be adaptive in the present. Ancestral humans lived in small groups of perhaps 50 to 150 in the context of close extended kin (Dunbar, 1993). Today we live in large cities in the context of thousands of strangers. Thus, it’s important to keep in mind that selection pressures have changed. In this sense, humans can be said to live in the modern world with an ancient brain.

Question 53

limitations of evolutionary psychology

Answer 53

1.adaptations are forget over millions of yearss and we cant go back in time and determine with certainty the specific selective forces on humans 2. evolutionary scientists have only scratched the surface in understanding evolved psych adapations (lack of knowledge of what triggers jealousy) 3. modern conditions are undoubtedly different from ancestral conditions in many respects, so that what was adaptive in the past might not be adaptive in the present (ancestors lived in groups in kin, today we are more disconnected) 4. it is sometimes easy to come up with different and competing evolutionary hypotheses for the same phenomena. essential of science, hard hand of empirical evidence can be used to evaluate competing theories 5.evolutionary hypotheses have sometimes been accused of being untestable and hence unfalsifiable. some evolutionary hypotheses (like some standard “social” hypotheses) have indeed been framed in ways that are too vague to be of much scientific value. The solution to this problem is to hold the same high scientific standards for all competing theories.

Question 54

naturally occurring variation leads to diffferences in the ability to survive and reproduce. the next generation contains more of the successful variant, which helped the other generation survive, therefore the successful variants are selected and unsuccessful ones are weeded out. over time successful variamts characterize whole species

Answer 54

natural selection

Question 55

inherited solutions to survival and reproductive problems posed by hostile forces of nature (diesease, famine, natural disaster,etc)/

Answer 55

adaptations

Question 56

When discussing evo features 1. Change ___ ____ - continuous process takes awhile, and adaptations/adjustment to environment happens because environment is changing a. _____ = processes inherited (solutions) to solve problems (survive and mate), adaptation = inherent solution to survival/reproductive problems , ___ ___ ___ _____ = anything that can impede chance of survival

Answer 56

over time, adaptive, hostile force of nature

Question 57

Certain traits that are crucial in ensuring the survival of the species so that the organism can find a mate and pass its genes. Evolved because they contribute to mating (plumage of peacock), shows partner genes are high quality. - species emphasizing mate selection - not all survive/ensure survival, but ones who do follow competitions.

Answer 57

sexual selection

Question 58

any aggression in animal kingdom (antlers of deer) or aggression means one member (males) compete and victorious one gets to mate w females. members of same sex compete w eachother for sexual access to members of other sex

Answer 58

intrasexual competition

Question 59

members of one sex choose a mate based on their preference for particular qualities in that mate. ie. female peacocks get to choose preferred (males w big colourful feathers), as a result those peacocks pass genes on. species who show off for girls

Answer 59

intersexual competition

Question 60

personal reproductive success (number of offspring you have) plus effects you have on reproduction of genetic relatives, weighed by genetic relatedness. - In evo bio and psyc, inclusive fitness of an organism is the sum of its classical fitness (fitness of direct descendeants - how many surviving offspring) and how many equivalents of own offspring it can add to population by supporting others - An organism can improve genetic success by being cooperative, helping others of species - If you base understanding of fitness/ability to survive on own descendents and on improbving geentic success of those who are also related to you (siblings, cousins, uncles), personal reproductive success plus any assistance on reproduction of genetic relatives weighhed by genetic directness = your personal reproductive success - By looking at fitness, direct descendants and copies of genes understand instances of social behaviour which at times would comprimise actor as long as genetic relatives have higher chance of survival studies have revealed thru scenarios that if given opportunity to save one person, you will pick the one who would ____ your inclusive fitness (your genes more likely to be passed on)

Answer 60

inclusive fitness theory, increase

Question 61

4 facets of human nature seen as a product of evolutionary process

Answer 61

need to belong helping/altruism universal emotions depression

Question 62

○ Humans and animals are _____ altruistic to people closer to them compared to distant kin or non relatives § Cross countries ○ Even subtle cues youre related to someone may unconsciously _____ altruistic motivation ○ Slightly changing photos of people so they resemble participants lead to ___ in trust toward others ○ Having same family name also _____ altruism even if never met, even for similar sounding name ○ Focus on adaptations that helped ancestors be and stay part of the group

Answer 62

more, increase, increase, increases

Question 63

○ Primary emotions like fear = associated w ___ parts of brain and are assumed to have evolved long ago pre mammal ○ familial emotions (ie. love of mom for children) - evolved in ____ mammals ○ Social emotions (rejection, guilt, ostracism) - evolved ____ and had ___ value when we became part of a group and it was important ○ Human emotions were crafted to lives of ancestors who were initially nomadic but then formed tribes and foraged ○ If emotions evolved to help and ensure survival, they have different functions § ____ - if part of group and do something not in their interest, if you don’t feel shame then how do you know you wont do it again? § Anything indicating _____ still motivates behaviour because helped ancestors form groups that cooperate or else group would disintegrate

Answer 63

old, early, later, adaptive, shame, seperateness

Question 64

depression has been seen as _____. Not clinical, but feeling down and low ○ Different depression types had different causes § Depression following social loss, break up, bereavement = ____ , manifested in crying, seeking support. Designed to seek ___ from others § Depression from ___ (rejection/fire) - feel fatigued/pessimistic. Pain signals something has gone wrong and that you pursued an unhelpful avenue and you must change □ If you don’t feel pain of _____, will invest in unproductive activities □ Can derive lessions from it

Answer 64

adaptive, pain, help, failiure,failiure

Question 65

males and females will be the ____ in all domains where sexes have faced _____ adaptive proble,s, but will be _____ in domains where they recurrently faced ___ adaptive problems

Answer 65

same/similar,same/similar, different, different

Question 66

Because women had a lot of energy spent and risks when having kids, she has to ensure her teammate can provide for her and children Women - adaptive problem = being _____ Men = adaptive problem= being ______ _____ ____ in studies When a person discovers betrayal, big choice is to terminate or forgive Men = terminate sexual infedelity, women = terminate for emotional

Answer 66

abandoned, cheated on sexually, men, women

Question 67

clark & hatfield (1989) found that member of the sex that invests ___ in offspring are predicted to be less discriminating in their mate selection, and more inclined to seek out multiple mates. this is usually men. Women have different rpoblems - having kid is a lot of time and energy, will be more picky when choseing mate - Want committed mates who were more likely to stay and provide for them

Answer 67

less

Question 68

in a study where students were asked to wither go on a date, go to ones apartment or have sex. women said yes more for ______, (though men scored similar), ______ said more for apartment, and most for sex

Answer 68

date, men

Question 69

limitations of evolutionary psychology

Answer 69

evolution has a large time span (cant go back)(precise selective forces?) modern conditions are not same as ancestral hard to test

Question 70

big 5 traits as clusters of key features of _____ ____ of others. humans have evolved special __ ___ ___ desgned to notice an remember individual differences that have the most relevance for solving social adaptive problems

Answer 70

adaptive landscape, differenvce detecting mechanisms