Chapter 7 Flashcards
What is memory
- retention of information over time
how often do we use memory
all the time; often unaware
Paradox of memory
can be amazing; but also terrible
Is memory accurate
yes
how do we construct memories
- from small fragements of information
memory is ____
malleable
how do we contruct our memeory
actively reconstruct
Hyperthymestic syndrome is also known as
highly superior autobiographical memory
Hyperthymestic syndrome
- people can often recall every detail in there day with perfect clarity
what are the three types of memory
- Sensory memory
- Short term (working) memory
- Long term memory
sensory memory
- closely tied to raw material of experiences
- brief storage system for perceptual information before it passes onto the short term memory
types of sensory memory
- iconic memory (visual)
- Echonic memory 9auditory)
sensory memory was studied extensively by
Sperling (1960)
Sensory memory methods
- whole memory report
- partial repost method
- partial report-delayed method
how long does iconic sensory memory last
only a few seconds
Photographic memory
- extremely rare
- hold a visual image in their mind with such clarity that can describe it perfectly
Photographic memory suspected cause
may be due to long iconic sensory memory duration
- allows more detailed memories to be stored
photographic memory is also known as
eidetic imagery
Short term memeory is also referred to
woking memory
STM
memory system that retains a limited amount of information for a limited duration
why is short term memory referred to as working memory
because information is held in the STM is information we are currently thinking about, attending to, or actively processing. It is what we are consciously aware of and working with
how long is STM
no greater than 20secs
- without using control process
control process
- things we do to keep refreshing information in the STM so it doesn’t degrade
control process example
Rehearsal
- repeating words over and over to yourself
Short term memeory duration can be explained by
Brown- Peterson and Peterson Task
what is the Brown-Peterson and Peterson task
- give participants a list of item
- give then a distractor task
- after the distractor task, ask people to recall as many items as possible
How can memory be lost in short term memory
- decay
- interference
Decay
the loss of STM information due to the passage of time
Interference
- new and old information create conflict that causes information to be lost from the system
What are the two types of Interference
- Proactive
- Retroactive
proactive interference
- old information causes problems for learning about new interreference
Retroactive interference
- new learning causes problems for earlier learning
Millers magic number
Capacity of short term memory is 7 plus or minus 2 items
STM capacity was originally tested using
digit span test
Most adults have a digit span of
5-9 items
how can you increase STM capacity
- chunking
chunking
process by which we group items into larger “bits”
how can you increase duration
rehearsal
what are the 2 different types of rehearsal
- Maintenance
- Elaborative
Maintenance rehearsal
- simply repeating information back into its original form
- generally effortless
Elaborative rehearsal
elaborate on things that we need to remember by linking them together in a meaningful way
- takes effort
Elaborative rehearsal supports the idea
that there are different levels of processing (LOP)
LOP
- states the more meaningfully we engage in material, the better we remember it
- levels range from shallow (worst) to deep (best)
Long term memory
- our relatively enduring (from minutes to years) retention of information stored regarding our facts, experiences, and skills
LTM has a longer ______ and ______ than STM
capacity
duration
errors in LTM are generally based on
semantic information
- mistakes often related to meaning
errors in STM are generally
acoustic
- mixing up information based on similar sounding items
Serial position effect
- refers to the U-shaped relationship between a words position in a list, and its probability of recall
what do we tend to see from the serial position effect
- primacy
- recency
what are the 2 main divisions of LTM
- Explicit (declarative)
- Implicit (non-declarative)
what are the 2 types of declarative memory
- Semantic
- episodic
what are the 4 tpyes of non delcaritive memory
- procedural
- priming
- conditioning
- habituation
Explicit memory
- memory we are able to recall intentionally. Requires conscious effort to recall. Information is easy to verbalize
Semantic memory
our knowledge about facts and our world
Episodic memory
Our recollection of events in our lives
Implicit memory
memory that we do not recall intentionally, and cannot (or cannot easily) verbalize when asked. Do not require conscious effort to recall
Priming
our ability to identifiy a stimulus more easily or more quickly when we have encountered it before
procedural memory
memory for motor skills and habits
Stem completion task
fill in the blank however you want (but you must use the piece given how it is presented)
what are the three processes of memory
- Encoding
- storage
- retrieval
Encoding
translating information into a neural code so that is can be stored for later
Storage
the process by which information is maintained over time
Retrieval
the recall or reconstruction of the information from long term memory for use
In the library process encoding can be compaired to
using a computer
in the library process storage can be compaired to
the librian putting books into the proper section of the library
in the library process retrieval can be comparied to
looking up the book in the catelogy and retrieving the book
encoding is linked to
attention
what hinders encoding
distraction
Encoding can be demostrated by the
next in line effect
how can encoding can be improved
mnemonics
- first letter technique
- Bizarre and interactive imagery
- method of Loci
- peg word method
mnemonics
- any learning aid, strategy, or device that enhances recall
- they operate by enhancing encoding
First letter technique
- create an acronym using he first letter of each to-be-remembered item in a list
what is an example of the first letter technique
Roy G. Biv
what are the 2 visual based mnemonics
- bizarre imagery
- interactive imagery
method of loci
- memory strategy which relies on visual mental imagery of places, and putting to-be-remebered items into visualized space
Pegword Method
- strategy used to remember lists
- typically involves memorizing a list of items that rhyme, and then associating new to-be-remembered items with the items on the peg-board
how we store information depends apon
how we store information depends on our interpretation and expectations of the information
Schemas
an organized knowledge structure or mental model that we have stored in memory
- assists us with interpretation new situations
- helps reduce the amount of information we need to store about common situations/locations/events
a special type of schema is known as a ____
script
Schemas can lead to memory errors, such as ____________
oversimplification
Schemas can be demonstrated by which experiement
brewer & Treyens (1981)
- office schema memory errors
retrieval
process of getting information from our long term memory and bringing it to conscious awareness
many memory errors are a failure of
retrieval
Retrieval is facilitated by the presence of
retrieval cues
retrieval cues
hints that it easier for us to recall information
what are the three ways of measuring retrieval
- recall testing
- recognition
- relearning
recall testing examples
short answer questions; essay questions; cued recall test
Recognition testing example
multiple choice question
Relearning example
Ebbinghaus studies
Recall testing is demonstrated in which experiement
Mantyla (1986)
Relearning: Ebbinghaus (1185)
- studied lists of “nonsense syllables”
- after learning a list, waited a period of time before trying to recall it
- would the relearn the list until could be repeated without error
- compaired time it took to learn the list originally to the time it took to learn the list the second time
- second time always faster. Some memory “saved”. Called it “savings”
law of Distributed vs. Massed Practice
- learning material over many short bursts leads to much more effective retrieval than learning in one long session
Tip-of-the-Tongue (TOT) Phenomena
TOT is the experience of knowing we know something, but cannot get the detail out at the right time
- highlights an eror with retrival
does a TOT experience happen is someone who uses sign language
yes
Encoding specificity
is the phenomena where we are more likely to remember information if the when there is a match between conditions at study (encoding) and test (retrieval)
What are the 2 main types of encoding specificity
- context dependent learning
- state dependent learning
Context dependent learning is demonstrated in which experiment
Godden & Baddeley (1975): the “diving experiment”
Context dependent learning
shows this context dependent condition also works with auditory noise
Context dependent learning
- matching the internal stateat study and test enhances recall
- very similiar to how matching context between study and test enhances recall
Engram
the physical trace of each memory in the brain
- memories of different types of experiences are stored in differnt brain regions
engrams are located in
assemblies
Engrams also described
the neurobiological process of memory formation: Long-term potentiation
Long Term potentiation (LTP)
the gradula stretching of the connections amoung neurons from repetivie stimulation
LTP is prominent is
the hippocampal neurons, amygdala, and the neocortex
LTP demonstrates
that an engram does not exist; instead, memories are diffusely stored
where is memory largely stored
prefrontal cortex
Hippocampus role in memory
- does not store memories itself; is activated to help develop/strengthen neural connections in the prefrontal cortex and other areas
hippocampus is needed for
encoding
generalized amnesia
- losing all memory of their past life
- very rare
treatment happens slowly (if at all)
Retrograde amnesia
is the loos of information that happened in the past
Anterograde amnesia
- is the inability to form new long term memories
- “forward acting”
- most common type
Amygdala role in emotional memory
helps recall information associated with fearful events
Hippocampus role in emotional memory
helps us recall the events themselves
memory usually declines after the age of
65
what is the most common cause of dementia
Alzheimers disease
Alzheimers disease
- results in memory and language loss.
-Consistant with cortical tissue loss in associated areas - no cure; treatments only slow progression
meta memory skills
Infantile Amnesia
- inability of adults to retrive accurate memories before 2-3 years of age
WHY??? hippocampus is only partially developed in infants
Fasle memory effects
- flashbulb memories
- source monitoring errors
- the misinformation effect and other implanted false memories
Flashbulb memory
an emotional memory that is extraordinary vivid and detailed
Source monitoring confusion
lack of clarity about the orgin of a memory
Crytomnesia
failure to recognize that our ideas originated with someone else
what are the three source monitoring errors
- source monitoring confusion
-“wishful thinking bias - crytomnesia
Misinformation effect
creation of fictitous memories by providing misleading information about an event after it takes place
Misinformation effect is demonstrated in which experiment
Loftus (1978)
- stop vs. yeild sign experiement
- showed MPI effect
Misleading post information makes _____ unrealiable
eyewitness testimonies
eye witness testimonies are less accurate when
- people observe individuals of a race other than their own
- talk to other witnesses
- when the catch only a breif glimpse of the criminal
- when they view crime under stressful situations (threatened)
- when there is a gun
stradiges to combat problems with eyewitness testimonies
- congnitive interviewing
- gather witness statements as quickly as possible
- rely on more reports that are gathered shortly after the event
- corroborate witness statements with other forms of evidence
Cognitive interviewing
a procedure to interview witnesses that is based n what is known about memory retrieval errors
- witness talk with minimal interruptions
- multidimensional
- providing questions that may begin but still may serve as retrieval cues
