Chapter 7 Flashcards
1
Q
What is memory
A
- retention of information over time
2
Q
how often do we use memory
A
all the time; often unaware
3
Q
Paradox of memory
A
can be amazing; but also terrible
4
Q
Is memory accurate
A
yes
5
Q
how do we construct memories
A
- from small fragements of information
6
Q
memory is ____
A
malleable
7
Q
how do we contruct our memeory
A
actively reconstruct
8
Q
Hyperthymestic syndrome is also known as
A
highly superior autobiographical memory
9
Q
Hyperthymestic syndrome
A
- people can often recall every detail in there day with perfect clarity
10
Q
what are the three types of memory
A
- Sensory memory
- Short term (working) memory
- Long term memory
11
Q
sensory memory
A
- closely tied to raw material of experiences
- brief storage system for perceptual information before it passes onto the short term memory
12
Q
types of sensory memory
A
- iconic memory (visual)
- Echonic memory 9auditory)
13
Q
sensory memory was studied extensively by
A
Sperling (1960)
14
Q
Sensory memory methods
A
- whole memory report
- partial repost method
- partial report-delayed method
15
Q
how long does iconic sensory memory last
A
only a few seconds
16
Q
Photographic memory
A
- extremely rare
- hold a visual image in their mind with such clarity that can describe it perfectly
17
Q
Photographic memory suspected cause
A
may be due to long iconic sensory memory duration
- allows more detailed memories to be stored
18
Q
photographic memory is also known as
A
eidetic imagery
19
Q
Short term memeory is also referred to
A
woking memory
20
Q
STM
A
memory system that retains a limited amount of information for a limited duration
21
Q
why is short term memory referred to as working memory
A
because information is held in the STM is information we are currently thinking about, attending to, or actively processing. It is what we are consciously aware of and working with
22
Q
how long is STM
A
no greater than 20secs
- without using control process
23
Q
control process
A
- things we do to keep refreshing information in the STM so it doesn’t degrade
24
Q
control process example
A
Rehearsal
- repeating words over and over to yourself
25
Short term memeory duration can be explained by
Brown- Peterson and Peterson Task
26
what is the Brown-Peterson and Peterson task
- give participants a list of item
- give then a distractor task
- after the distractor task, ask people to recall as many items as possible
27
How can memory be lost in short term memory
- decay
- interference
28
Decay
the loss of STM information due to the passage of time
29
Interference
- new and old information create conflict that causes information to be lost from the system
30
What are the two types of Interference
- Proactive
- Retroactive
31
proactive interference
- old information causes problems for learning about new interreference
32
Retroactive interference
- new learning causes problems for earlier learning
33
Millers magic number
Capacity of short term memory is 7 plus or minus 2 items
34
STM capacity was originally tested using
digit span test
35
Most adults have a digit span of
5-9 items
36
how can you increase STM capacity
- chunking
37
chunking
process by which we group items into larger "bits"
38
how can you increase duration
rehearsal
39
what are the 2 different types of rehearsal
- Maintenance
- Elaborative
40
Maintenance rehearsal
- simply repeating information back into its original form
- generally effortless
41
Elaborative rehearsal
elaborate on things that we need to remember by linking them together in a meaningful way
- takes effort
42
Elaborative rehearsal supports the idea
that there are different levels of processing (LOP)
43
LOP
- states the more meaningfully we engage in material, the better we remember it
- levels range from shallow (worst) to deep (best)
44
Long term memory
- our relatively enduring (from minutes to years) retention of information stored regarding our facts, experiences, and skills
45
LTM has a longer ______ and ______ than STM
capacity
duration
46
errors in LTM are generally based on
semantic information
- mistakes often related to meaning
47
errors in STM are generally
acoustic
- mixing up information based on similar sounding items
48
Serial position effect
- refers to the U-shaped relationship between a words position in a list, and its probability of recall
49
what do we tend to see from the serial position effect
- primacy
- recency
50
what are the 2 main divisions of LTM
- Explicit (declarative)
- Implicit (non-declarative)
51
what are the 2 types of declarative memory
- Semantic
- episodic
52
what are the 4 tpyes of non delcaritive memory
- procedural
- priming
- conditioning
- habituation
53
Explicit memory
- memory we are able to recall intentionally. Requires conscious effort to recall. Information is easy to verbalize
54
Semantic memory
our knowledge about facts and our world
55
Episodic memory
Our recollection of events in our lives
56
Implicit memory
memory that we do not recall intentionally, and cannot (or cannot easily) verbalize when asked. Do not require conscious effort to recall
57
Priming
our ability to identifiy a stimulus more easily or more quickly when we have encountered it before
58
procedural memory
memory for motor skills and habits
59
Stem completion task
fill in the blank however you want (but you must use the piece given how it is presented)
60
what are the three processes of memory
- Encoding
- storage
- retrieval
61
Encoding
translating information into a neural code so that is can be stored for later
62
Storage
the process by which information is maintained over time
63
Retrieval
the recall or reconstruction of the information from long term memory for use
64
In the library process encoding can be compaired to
using a computer
65
in the library process storage can be compaired to
the librian putting books into the proper section of the library
66
in the library process retrieval can be comparied to
looking up the book in the catelogy and retrieving the book
67
encoding is linked to
attention
68
what hinders encoding
distraction
69
Encoding can be demostrated by the
next in line effect
70
how can encoding can be improved
*mnemonics*
- first letter technique
- Bizarre and interactive imagery
- method of Loci
- peg word method
71
mnemonics
- any learning aid, strategy, or device that enhances recall
- they operate by enhancing encoding
72
First letter technique
- create an acronym using he first letter of each to-be-remembered item in a list
73
what is an example of the first letter technique
Roy G. Biv
74
what are the 2 visual based mnemonics
- bizarre imagery
- interactive imagery
75
method of loci
- memory strategy which relies on visual mental imagery of places, and putting to-be-remebered items into visualized space
76
Pegword Method
- strategy used to remember lists
- typically involves memorizing a list of items that rhyme, and then associating new to-be-remembered items with the items on the peg-board
77
how we store information depends apon
how we store information depends on our interpretation and expectations of the information
78
Schemas
an organized knowledge structure or mental model that we have stored in memory
- assists us with interpretation new situations
- helps reduce the amount of information we need to store about common situations/locations/events
79
a special type of schema is known as a ____
script
80
Schemas can lead to memory errors, such as ____________
oversimplification
81
Schemas can be demonstrated by which experiement
brewer & Treyens (1981)
- office schema memory errors
82
retrieval
process of getting information from our long term memory and bringing it to conscious awareness
83
many memory errors are a failure of
retrieval
84
Retrieval is facilitated by the presence of
retrieval cues
85
retrieval cues
hints that it easier for us to recall information
86
what are the three ways of measuring retrieval
- recall testing
- recognition
- relearning
87
recall testing examples
short answer questions; essay questions; cued recall test
88
Recognition testing example
multiple choice question
89
Relearning example
Ebbinghaus studies
90
Recall testing is demonstrated in which experiement
Mantyla (1986)
91
Relearning: Ebbinghaus (1185)
- studied lists of "nonsense syllables"
- after learning a list, waited a period of time before trying to recall it
- would the relearn the list until could be repeated without error
- compaired time it took to learn the list originally to the time it took to learn the list the second time
- second time always faster. Some memory "saved". Called it "savings"
92
law of Distributed vs. Massed Practice
- learning material over many short bursts leads to much more effective retrieval than learning in one long session
93
Tip-of-the-Tongue (TOT) Phenomena
TOT is the experience of knowing we know something, but cannot get the detail out at the right time
- highlights an eror with retrival
94
does a TOT experience happen is someone who uses sign language
yes
95
Encoding specificity
is the phenomena where we are more likely to remember information if the when there is a match between conditions at study (encoding) and test (retrieval)
96
What are the 2 main types of encoding specificity
- context dependent learning
- state dependent learning
97
Context dependent learning is demonstrated in which experiment
Godden & Baddeley (1975): the "diving experiment"
98
Context dependent learning
shows this context dependent condition also works with auditory noise
99
Context dependent learning
- matching the internal stateat study and test enhances recall
- very similiar to how matching context between study and test enhances recall
100
Engram
the physical trace of each memory in the brain
- memories of different types of experiences are stored in differnt brain regions
101
engrams are located in
assemblies
102
Engrams also described
the neurobiological process of memory formation: Long-term potentiation
103
Long Term potentiation (LTP)
the gradula stretching of the connections amoung neurons from repetivie stimulation
104
LTP is prominent is
the hippocampal neurons, amygdala, and the neocortex
105
LTP demonstrates
that an engram does not exist; instead, memories are diffusely stored
106
where is memory largely stored
prefrontal cortex
107
Hippocampus role in memory
- does not store memories itself; is activated to help develop/strengthen neural connections in the prefrontal cortex and other areas
108
hippocampus is needed for
encoding
109
generalized amnesia
- losing all memory of their past life
- very rare
treatment happens slowly (if at all)
110
Retrograde amnesia
is the loos of information that happened in the past
111
Anterograde amnesia
- is the inability to form new long term memories
- "forward acting"
- most common type
112
Amygdala role in emotional memory
helps recall information associated with fearful events
113
Hippocampus role in emotional memory
helps us recall the events themselves
114
memory usually declines after the age of
65
115
what is the most common cause of dementia
Alzheimers disease
116
Alzheimers disease
- results in memory and language loss.
-Consistant with cortical tissue loss in associated areas
- no cure; treatments only slow progression
117
meta memory skills
118
Infantile Amnesia
- inability of adults to retrive accurate memories before 2-3 years of age
WHY??? hippocampus is only partially developed in infants
119
Fasle memory effects
- flashbulb memories
- source monitoring errors
- the misinformation effect and other implanted false memories
120
Flashbulb memory
an emotional memory that is extraordinary vivid and detailed
121
Source monitoring confusion
lack of clarity about the orgin of a memory
122
Crytomnesia
failure to recognize that our ideas originated with someone else
123
what are the three source monitoring errors
- source monitoring confusion
-"wishful thinking bias
- crytomnesia
124
Misinformation effect
creation of fictitous memories by providing misleading information about an event after it takes place
125
Misinformation effect is demonstrated in which experiment
Loftus (1978)
- stop vs. yeild sign experiement
- showed MPI effect
126
Misleading post information makes _____ unrealiable
eyewitness testimonies
127
eye witness testimonies are less accurate when
- people observe individuals of a race other than their own
- talk to other witnesses
- when the catch only a breif glimpse of the criminal
- when they view crime under stressful situations (threatened)
- when there is a gun
128
stradiges to combat problems with eyewitness testimonies
- congnitive interviewing
- gather witness statements as quickly as possible
- rely on more reports that are gathered shortly after the event
- corroborate witness statements with other forms of evidence
129
Cognitive interviewing
a procedure to interview witnesses that is based n what is known about memory retrieval errors
- witness talk with minimal interruptions
- multidimensional
- providing questions that may begin but still may serve as retrieval cues
