Chapter 1 Flashcards
1
Q
What is psychology
A
- the scientific study of the mind, brain, and behaviour
2
Q
3 levels of analysis
A
- social and cultural influences
- psychological
- biological
3
Q
Social and cultural Influences
A
- social or behaviour level
- involoves relating to other and personal relationship
4
Q
psychological
A
- mental of neurological level
- involves thoughts, feeling, and emotions
5
Q
Biological
A
- molecular or neurochemical level
- involves molecules and brain structure
6
Q
Why is psychology difficult to study
A
- multiply determined
- rarely independent
- individual differences
- reciprocal determinism
- behaviour is often shaped by culture
7
Q
Naive realism
A
- people are prone
- we believe the world is exactly. how we see it
8
Q
reciprocal determinism
A
- people often influence each other
Example: stimulus enhancement (not eating unless other people eat)
9
Q
Emic approach
A
- study culture from the perspective of someone who grew up in the culture
- allows for a better understanding of the unique characteristics of the culture
10
Q
Etic approach
A
- study the culture from the perspective of an outsider
- allows to view culture from a broader approach
11
Q
Why is common sense not enough
A
naive realism
12
Q
Empirical evidence
A
- gained through experience and observation
- objective
WHY? –> minimize bias
13
Q
Scientific theory
A
- is an explanation for a larger number of findings in the natural world. Offers an account that ties multiple factors into one package
- testable
14
Q
Hypothesis
A
- specific (directional), testable prediction derived from a scientific theory
15
Q
Misconceptions of scientific theories
A
- a theory only explains only specific event
- a theory is an educated guess
16
Q
Observer bias
A
- possible to influence the interpretation of results
- can occur even if aware of own bias
17
Q
Confirmation bias
A
- tendency to selectively look for information that conforms to our hypotheses and overlook information that argues against it
- Example: Lord, Ross, and Shepard, 1979
18
Q
Belief preservation
A
- is the tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even in light of new evidence
- Example: Ross, Lepper, & Hubbard 1975
19
Q
Metaphysics claims
A
- are assertions about the world that cannot be tested
- outside the relm of science
Example: belief in god
20
Q
Pseudoscience
A
- is a set of claims that seem scientific, but are not
- important in todays digital world
- safeguards against conformation bias and belief preservation
21
Q
Warning signs of Pseudoscience
A
- exaggerated claims
- over reliance on anecdotes
- absence of connectivity ot other research
- lack of review by other scholars
- lack of self-correction’
-psychobabble (big words) - evidence
22
Q
Why are we drawn to pseudoscience
A
- patternicity
- provides confort (terrormanagement)
23
Q
antidote against pseudosciene
A
logical fallacies
24
Q
Emotional reasoining fallacy
A
- error of using our emotions for evaluating the validity of a claim
EXAMPLE: “ the idea that daycare might have a negative emotional efffects on children gets me really upset, so I refuse to believe it”
25
Bandwagon fallacy
- error of assumin gthat a claim is correct because many people believe it
EXAMPLE: "lots of people I know believe in astrology, so there's got to be something to it"
26
either-or fallacy
- error of framing a question as though we can answer it in only one of two extreme ways
27
not me fallacy
- error of believing were immmune to errors in thinking that afflict other people
28
appeal to authority fallacy
- Error of accepting a claim merely because an authority figure endorses it
29
genetic fallacy
- error of confusing the correctness of a belief with its origins or genesis
-EXAMPLE "Freud's views about personality development can't be right because Freuds thinking was shaped by sexist views popular at the time
30
Argument from antiquity fallacy
- error of assuming a beleif must be valid just because its been around for a long time
31
Argument from adverse consequences fallacy
- error of confusing the validity of data with its real-world consequences
32
appeal to ignorance fallacy
- error of assuing that a claim must be true because no one has shown it to be false
33
Naturalistic fallacy
- error of inferring a moral judgement from a scientific fact
34
Hasty generalization fallacy
- error of drawing a conclusion on the basis of insufficent evidence
35
circular reasoning fallacy
- error of basing a claim on the same claim reworded in slightly diffrent terms
36
Dangers of Pseudoscience
- oppertunity cost (effects)
- direct harm (dealth)
- blocks scientific thinking
37
Scientific skepticism
- the approach of evaluating all claims with an open mind, but insisting on persuasive evidence before accepting them as true
38
what is a core aspect of scientific thinking
- critical thinking
39
Six principles of scientific thinking
- ruling out rival hypotheses
- correction vs. causation
- falsifiability
- replicability
- extraordinary claims
- occam's razor
40
Wilhelm Wundt
1879
- developed the first true laboratory of psychology in Leipzig, Germany
- pioneered the technique of introspection to study mental processes
41
Early Psychology
- did not exsit, early psychologists held position in philosophy
42
Structuralism leading figure
E.B. Titchener
43
Structuralism Goal
- use introspection to identify basic element or structures of experience
44
structuralism lasting figures
- emphasis on the importance of systemic observation to study conscious experience
45
Functionalism leading figure
William james
46
Functionalism goal
- understanding the functions or adaptive purposes of our thoughts, feelings, and behaviours
47
Functionalism lasting influences
- evolution and adaptation has shaped human thought and behaviour. cognitive process exist for a reason
48
Behaviourism leading figures
BF Skinner & John B Watson
49
Behaviourism goal
- to uncover the general principles of learning that explains all behaviours. Focus is primarily on observable behaviours
50
Behaviourism lasting influences
- creating influential models of human and animal learning
- strong focus on the need for objective research and data
51
Cognitivism leading figures
- Jean Piagat & Ulric Neisser
52
Cognitivism goal
- to examine the role of mental processes on behaviour
53
cognitivism lasting influence
- significant impact on the study of many areas of psychology, such as language, problem solving, concept formation, intelligence, memory, and psychotherapy
- has uncovered many basic processes that allow for comple human ability
54
Psychoanalysis leading figure
Sigmund Freud
55
Psychoanalysis Goal
- to uncover the role of unconscious psychological processes and early experiences on behaviour/thought
56
psychoanalysis lasting figure
- led to the understanding that many of our mental processes happen outside of our conscious awareness
- pioneered non-physical treatment for psychological disorders
57
Counselling psychologist
- work with people experiencing temporary or relatively self-contained life problems, like marital conflicts, sexual difficulties, occupational stressors, or career uncertainty
- work in councilling centres, hospitals, or private practice
58
School psychologists
- work with teachers, parents, and children to remedy students behavioral, emotional, and learning difficulties
59
Developmental psychologists
- study how and why people change over time
- conduct research on infants, children, and sometimes adults and elderly peoples emotional, physiological, and cognitive process and how these change with age
60
experiemental phychlogists
- use research methods to study memory, language, thinking, and social behavious of humans
- work primarily in research settings
61
Biological Psychologists
- examine the physiological bases of behaviour in animals and humans
-- most work in research settings
62
Forensic Psychologist
- work in prisons, jails, and other settings to asses and diagnose inmates and assist with their rehabilitation and treatment
- others conduct research on eyewitness testimony or jury decision making
- typically hold degrees in clinical or counselling psychology
63
Industrial Organizational psychologists
- work in companies and businesses to help select productive employees, evaluate performances, and examine the effects of diffrent working or living conditions on peoples behaviours
- design equipment to maximize employee performance and minimize accidents
64
Nature-Nurture
- are behaviours mostly due to our genes (nature) or our environment (nurture)
65
Free will vs. determinism
- to what extent are our behaviour freely selected (free will) rather than caused factors outside our control (determinism)
66
Application of psychological research examples
- changing the color of fire trucks
- the addition of third brake light in the middle of the rear windshield of vehicles
- effective commercial messages
- sequential line-ups of suspects for crimes
67
Naive realism
- we see the world precisely how it is
68
do opposites attract
- no
69
ad hoc immunization theory
- escape hatch or loophole that defenders of theory use to protect it from falsification
70
Fasification
- capiable of being disproved
71
Patternicity
- tendancy to see patterns in meaningless data
EXAMPLE: seeing animal shapes in clouds, face on mars
72
terror management theory
- awarness of own inevitable dealth leaves us with an underlying sense of terror
73
mortality science
- extent to which thoughts of dealth are foremost in our minds
74
scientific scepticism
- approach of evaluating all claims with an open mind by insisting on persuasive evidence before excepting it
75
critical thinking
- set of skills for evaluating all claims with an open minded and carful fashion
76
levels on analysis
- rungs on a ladder
- lower levels closely tied to biological influences
- higher levels tied to social influences
77
how to evaluate media
- peer reviewed
- refrences
- controlled scientific studies
- extreme claims
- was it recently updated
78
applied research
- research examining how we can use basic research to solve real world problems
79
basic research
- research examining how the mind works
