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Anatomy and Physiology Lecture > Chapter 4 - The Tissue Level of Organization > Flashcards

Chapter 4 - The Tissue Level of Organization Flashcards

1
Q

What are Tissues?

A

Collections of specialized cells and cell products that perform specific functions

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2
Q

Tissues in combination form…

A

Organs (ex. heart, liver)

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3
Q

Define Histology

A

The study of tissues

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4
Q

What are the 4 main types of Tissues?

A
  1. Epithelial
  2. Connective
  3. Muscle
  4. Nervous
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5
Q

What is the function of Epithelial Tissue?

A
  • Covers exposed surfaces
  • Lines internal passageways and chambers
  • Forms glands (produces glandular secretions)
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6
Q

What is the function of Connective Tissue?

A
  • Fills internal spaces
  • Supports other tissues
  • Transports materials
  • Stores energy
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7
Q

What is the function of Muscle Tissue?

A
  • Specialized for contraction to produce movement

- Skeletal muscle, heart muscle, and muscular walls of hollow organs

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8
Q

What is the function of Nervous Tissue?

A

Carries electrical signals from one part of the body to another (propagates electrical impulses; carries information)

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9
Q

What components make up Epithelial Tissue?

A

a. Epithelia
- Layers of cells covering internal or external surfaces
b. Glands
- Structures that produce fluid secretions

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10
Q

What are the 4 main functions of Epithelial Tissue?

A
  1. Provide physical protection
  2. Control permeability
  3. Provide sensation
  4. Produce specialized secretions
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11
Q

What are the main characteristics of Epithelia?

A
  • Polarity (apical and basal surfaces)
  • Cellularity (cell junctions)
  • Attachment (basement membrane)
  • Avascularity (avascular)
  • Regeneration
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12
Q

What are the main specializations of epithelial cells?

A
  • Move fluids over the epithelium (protection)
  • Move fluids through the epithelium (permeability)
  • Produce secretions (protection and messaging)
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13
Q

Integrity of Epithelia is maintained by…

A
  • Intracellular connections
  • Attachment to the basement membrane
  • Epithelial maintenance and repair
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14
Q

The intercellular connections of Epithelial Tissue help to provide ________ and ___________.

A

Support; communication

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15
Q

What are the different types of intercellular connections of Epithelial Tissue?

A

a. Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs)
- Transmembrane proteins
b. Proteoglycans act as intercellular cement
- Contains glycosaminoglycans such as hyaluronan (hyaluronic acid)
c. Cell junctions
- Form bonds with other cells or extracellular material

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16
Q

What are the main types of Cell Junctions that make up Epithelial Tissue?

A
  1. Gap junctions
  2. Tight junctions
  3. Desmosomes
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17
Q

What are Gap Junctions and what are its main functions?

A
  • Cells held together by interlocking transmembrane proteins (connexons)
  • Allows rapid communication
  • Allows small molecules and ions to pass
  • Coordinates contractions in heart muscle
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18
Q

What are Tight Junctions and what are its main functions?

A
  • Junctions between two plasma membranes
  • Adhesion belt attaches to terminal web
  • Prevents passage of water and solutes
  • Keeps enzymes, acids, and wastes in the lumen of the digestive tract
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19
Q

What are Desmosomes and what are its main functions?

A

CAMs and proteoglycans that link opposing plasma membranes

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20
Q

What are the different types of Desmosomes?

A

a. Spot Desmosomes
- Tie adjacent cells together
- Allow bending and twisting
b. Hemidesmosomes
- Attach cells to extracellular structures (ex. such as protein fibers in the basement membrane)

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21
Q

What are the different types of attachments to the basement membrane?

A

a. Basal lamina
- Closest to the epithelium
b. Reticular lamina
- Deeper portion of basement membrane
- Provides strength

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22
Q

How does Epithelial Tissue provide maintenance and repair?

A

Epithelial cells are replaced by continual division of stem cells (located near basement membrane)

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23
Q

The classification of epithelia is based on…

A

a. Shape
b. Layers
- Simple epithelium (single layer of cells)
- Stratified epithelium (several layers of cells)

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24
Q

What are the different epithelia shapes?

A

a. Squamous - thin and flat
b. Cuboidal - square shaped
c. Columnar - tall, slender rectangles

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25
Q

What is the main function of Simple Squamous Epithelia and where is it typically found?

A
  • Provides absorption and diffusion
  • Reduces friction
  • Controls vessel permeability
  • Lines body cavities
  • Forms inner lining of heart and blood vessels
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26
Q

What is the main function of Stratified Squamous Epithelia and where is it typically found?

A
  • Protects against mechanical stresses
  • Keratin adds strength and water resistance
  • Provides physical protection against abrasion, pathogens, and chemical attack
  • Surface of skin
  • Lining of mouth, throat, esophagus, rectum, anus, and vagina
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27
Q

What is the main function of Simple Cuboidal Epithelia and where is it typically found?

A
  • Secretion and absorption
  • Limited protection
  • Glands and portions of kidney tubules
  • Ducts
  • Thyroid gland
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28
Q

What is the main function of Stratified Cuboidal Epithelia and where is it typically found?

A
  • Protection, secretion, and absorption
  • Relatively rare
  • Ducts of sweat glands and mammary glands
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29
Q

What is the main function of Transitional Epithelium and where is it typically found?

A
  • Tolerates repeated cycles of stretching without damage (appearance changes as stretching occurs)
  • Found in urinary bladder
  • Renal pelvis
  • Ureters
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30
Q

What is the main function of Simple Columnar Epithelia and where is it typically found?

A
  • Absorption, secretion, and protection
  • Found in lining of stomach, small intestine, large intestine, gallbladder, uterine tubes, and collecting ducts of kidneys
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31
Q

What is the main function of Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelia and where is it typically found?

A
  • Protection, secretion, move mucus with cilia
  • Found in lining of nasal cavity, trachea, bronchi
  • Portions of male reproductive tract
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32
Q

What is the main function of Stratified Columnar Epithelia and where is it typically found?

A
  • Protection
  • Relatively rare
  • Small areas of pharynx, anus, urethra, epiglottis, mammary glands, and salivary gland ducts
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33
Q

What are Glands?

A

Collections of epithelial cells that produce secretions

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34
Q

What is the difference between Endocrine Glands and Exocrine Glands?

A

a. Endocrine Glands
- Release hormones that enter bloodstream
- No ducts
b. Exocrine Glands
- Produce exocrine secretions
- Discharge secretions through ducts onto epithelial surfaces

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35
Q

What are the different types of Gland structures?

A
  • Unicellular glands

- Multicellular glands

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36
Q

What are examples of Unicellular Glands?

A

a. Goblet cells (unicellular exocrine glands)
- Found in epithelia of intestines
- Secretes mucin; which mixes with water to form mucus

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37
Q

Multicellular Exocrine Glands are classified by…

A

a. Structure of the duct
- Simple (undivided)
- Compound (divided)
b. Shape of secretory portion of the gland
- Tubular (tube shaped)
- Alveolar or acinar (blind pockets)
c. Relationship between ducts and glandular areas
- Branched (several secretory areas sharing one duct)

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38
Q

What are the different methods of secretion of Epithelia?

A

a. Merocrine
b. Apocrine
c. Holocrine

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39
Q

What is Merocrine Secretion released by?

A
  • Released by secretory vesicles at apical surface of gland cell by exocytosis
    Ex. Merocrine sweat glands
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40
Q

What is Apocrine Secretion released by?

A
  • Involves loss of apical cytoplasm
  • Released by shedding cytoplasm (inclusions, secretory vesicles, cytoplasmic components shed in the process)
  • Gland cell grows and repairs itself before releasing additional secretions
    Ex. Mammary glands
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41
Q

What is Holocrine Secretion released by?

A
  • Occurs as superficial gland cells burst
  • Cont. secretion involves replacement of these cells through mitotic divisions of stem cells
  • Released by cells bursting, killing gland cells
  • Gland cells replaced by stem cells
    Ex. Sebaceous glands
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42
Q

What are the different types of secretions produced by the different Exocrine Glands?

A

a. Serous glands
- Watery secretions
b. Mucous glands
- Secrete mucins
c. Mixed exocrine glands
- Both serous and mucous

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43
Q

What are the components that make up Connective Tissues?

A
  • Specialized cells
  • Extracellular protein fibers
  • Fluid called ground substance
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44
Q

What is the Matrix?

A

Consists of extracellular components of connective tissue (fibers and ground substance); makes up majority of tissue volume and determines specialized function

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45
Q

What are the main functions of Connective Tissues?

A
  • Establishing structural framework for body
  • Transporting fluids and dissolved materials
  • Protecting delicate organs
  • Supporting, surrounding, interconnecting other tissue types
  • Storing energy reserves (especially triglycerides)
  • Defending body from invading microorganisms
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46
Q

What are the main categories of Connective Tissues and their main functions?

A

a. Connective tissue proper
- Connect and protect
b. Fluid connective tissues
- Transport
c. Supporting connective tissues
- Structural strength

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47
Q

What are the categories of Connective Tissue Proper?

A

a. Loose connective tissue
- More ground substance, fewer fibers
Ex. Fat (adipose tissue)
b. Dense connective tissue
- More fibers, less ground substance
Ex. Tendons

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48
Q

What are the main cells that make up Connective Tissue Proper?

A
  • Fibroblasts
  • Fibrocytes
  • Adipocytes
  • Mesenchymal cells
  • Melanocytes
  • Macrophages
  • Mast cells
  • Lymphocytes
  • Microphages
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49
Q

What are Fibroblasts and what are its main functions?

A
  • Most abundant cell type
  • Found in all types of connective tissue proper
  • Secretes proteins and hyaluronan (cellular cement)
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50
Q

What are Fibrocytes and what are its main functions?

A
  • Second most abundant cell type

- Maintains connective tissue fibers

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51
Q

What are Adipocytes and what are its main functions?

A
  • Fat cells

- Each cell stores a single, large fat droplet

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52
Q

What are Mesenchymal Cells and what are its main functions?

A
  • Stem cells that respond to injury/infection

- Differentiates into fibroblasts, macrophages

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53
Q

What are Melanocytes and what are its main functions?

A

Synthesizes and stores the brown pigment melanin

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54
Q

What are Macrophages and what are its main functions?

A
  • Large phagocytic cells of the immune system

- Engulfs pathogens and damaged cells

55
Q

What are the 2 types of Macrophages?

A
  1. Fixed macrophages
    - Stay in tissue
  2. Free macrophages
    - Migrate
56
Q

What are Mast Cells and what are its main functions?

A
  • Stimulates inflammation after injury/infection by releasing histamine and heparin
57
Q

What are Lymphocytes and what are its main functions?

A
  • Migrates throughout the body

- May develop into plasma cells, which produce antibodies

58
Q

What are Microphages and what are its main functions?

A
  • Phagocytic blood cells (neutrophils, eosinophils)

- Attracted to signals from macrophages and mast cells

59
Q

What are the main types of Connective Tissue Fibers?

A
  1. Collagen fibers
  2. Reticular fibers
  3. Elastic fibers
60
Q

What are Collagen Fibers and what are its characteristics?

A
  • Most common fibers in connective tissue proper
  • Long, straight, unbranched
  • Strong and flexible
  • Resist force in one direction
  • Abundant in tendons and ligaments
61
Q

What are Reticular Fibers and what are its characteristics?

A
  • Forms network of interwoven fibers (stroma)
  • Strong and flexible
  • Resist forces in many directions
  • Stabilizes functional cells (parenchyma) and structures
    Ex. Sheaths around organs
62
Q

What are Elastic Fibers and what are its characteristics?

A
  • Contains elastin
  • Branched and wavy
  • Returns to original length after stretching
    Ex. Elastic ligaments of vertebrae
63
Q

What is Ground Substance?

A
  • Clear, colorless and viscous

- Fills spaces between cells and slows pathogen movement

64
Q

What is Loose Connective Tissue?

A
  • “Packing” materials

- Fills spaces between organs, cushion cells, and support epithelia

65
Q

What is Embryonic Connective Tissue and what is it composed of?

A
  • **Not found in adults
  • Mesenchyme (embryonic connective tissue; first connective tissue in embryos)
  • Mucous connective tissue
66
Q

What are the types of Loose Connective Tissues in adults?

A
  1. Areolar tissue
  2. Adipose tissue
  3. Reticular tissue
67
Q

What is the main function of Areolar Tissue and where is it typically found?

A
  • Cushions organs
  • Provides support but permits independent movement (open framework)

Ex. Found under skin (subcutaneous layer)

  • Within and deep to dermis of skin
  • Covered by epithelial lining of digestive, respiratory, and urinary tracts
  • Between muscles
  • Around joints, blood vessels, and nerves
68
Q

What is the main function of Adipose Tissue and where is it typically found?

A
  • Provides padding and cushions shocks
  • Insulates (reduces heat loss)
  • Stores energy
  • Deep to the skin (especially at sides, buttocks, and breasts)
  • Padding around eyes and kidneys
69
Q

What is Adipose Tissue composed of?

A
  • Contains many adipocytes (fat cells)
  • Adipocytes in adults DO NOT divide (expand to store fat; shrink as fats are released)
  • Mesenchymal cells divide/differentiate to produce more fat cells when more storage is needed
70
Q

What is the difference between white fat and brown fat?

A

a. White fat
- Most common
- Stores fat and absorbs shocks
- Slows heat loss (insulation)
b. Brown fat
- Found in babies and young children
- More vascularized
- Adipocytes have many mitochondria
- Breakdown of lipids releases energy and warms body

71
Q

What is the main function of Reticular Tissue and where is it typically found?

A
  • Provides supporting framework
  • Support functional cells of organs
  • Found in liver, kidney, spleen, lymph nodes, and bone marrow
72
Q

Dense Connective Tissues are also called…

A

Collagenous tissues because it contains many collagen fibers

73
Q

What are the 3 types of Dense Connective Tissues?

A
  1. Dense regular
  2. Dense irregular
  3. Elastic
74
Q

What are the components that make up Dense Regular Connective Tissue?

A

Tightly packed, parallel collagen fibers

75
Q

What are the main types of Dense Regular Connective Tissue?

A

a. Tendons
- Attach muscles to bones
b. Ligaments
- Connect one bone to another and stabilize organs
c. Aponeuroses
- Tendinous sheets that attach a broad, flat muscle to another structure

76
Q

What is the main function of Dense Regular Connective Tissue and where is it typically found?

A
  • Provides firm attachment
  • Conducts pull of muscles
  • Reduces friction between muscles
  • Stabilizes positions of bones
  • Between skeletal muscles and skeleton
  • Between bones or stabilizing positions of internal organs
  • Covering skeleton muscles
77
Q

What is Dense Irregular Connective Tissue?

A

Interwoven network of collagen fibers

78
Q

What are the main functions of Dense Irregular Connective Tissue?

A
  • Provides strength to dermis to resist forces from many directions
  • Forms sheath around cartilages and bones
  • Forms capsules around some organs
  • Helps prevent overexpansion of organs
79
Q

Where is Dense Irregular Connective Tissue typically found?

A
  • Capsules of visceral organs
  • Periostea and perichondria
  • Nerve and muscle sheaths
  • Dermis
80
Q

Elastic Tissue is made up of…

A

Elastic fibers

81
Q

What is the main function of Elastic Tissue and where is it typically found?

A
  • Stabilizes positions of vertebrae and penis
  • Cushions shocks
  • Permits expansion and contraction of organs
  • Between vertebrae of spinal column
  • Ligaments support penis
  • Ligaments supporting transitional epithelia
  • Blood vessel walls
82
Q

What are the main functions of Connective Tissues?

A
  • Provide strength and stability
  • Maintain positions of internal organs
  • Provide routes for blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves
83
Q

What is Fasciae?

A

Connective tissue layers and wrappings that support and surround organs

84
Q

What are the 3 layers of Fasciae?

A
  1. Superficial fascia
    - Separates skin from underlying tissues
  2. Deep fascia
    - Sheets of dense regular connective tissue
  3. Subserous fascia
    - Lies between deep fascia and serous membranes that line body cavities
85
Q

Fluid Connective Tissues include…

A

Blood and lymph

86
Q

What are the components that make up Blood?

A
  • Watery matrix called plasma
  • Cells and cell fragments, collectively known as formed elements
  • Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
  • White blood cells (leukocytes)
  • Platelets
87
Q

What are Red Blood Cells and what are they composed of?

A
  • Account for 1/2 the volume of whole blood and give blood its color
  • Lacks a nucleus
  • Transport oxygen in the blood
88
Q

What are White Blood Cells and what are they composed of?

A
  • Nucleated cells that defend the body from infection and disease
89
Q

What are Platelets and what are they composed of?

A
  • Membrane enclosed packets of cytoplasm that function in blood clotting
  • These are involved in clotting response that seals leaks in damaged or broken blood vessels
90
Q

Lymph forms as ___________ _______ that enters __________ ______ monitored by __________ _________ and returned to ______ near the _______.

A

Interstitial fluid; lymphatic vessels; immune system; veins; heart

91
Q

Supporting Connective Tissues include…

A

Cartilage and bone

92
Q

What is the function of Cartilage and what is it composed of?

A
  • Provides shock absorption and protection
  • The matrix is a firm gel
  • Contains polysaccharide derivatives called chondroitin sulfates
  • Cells in matrix are chondrocytes
93
Q

What are the types of Cartilage strucutres?

A

b. Perichondrium
-

94
Q

What are the types of Cartilage?

A
  1. Hyaline cartilage
  2. Elastic cartilage
  3. Fibrocartilage
95
Q

What is the main function of Hyaline Cartilage and where is it typically found?

A
  • Most common type
  • Tough/stiff and somewhat flexible support
  • Reduces friction between bones
  • Found in synovial joints, rib tips, sternum, and trachea
96
Q

What is the main function of Elastic Cartilage and where is it typically found?

A
  • Supportive but bends easily
  • Provides support, tolerates distortion without damage and returns to original shape
  • Found in external ear and epiglottis
  • Auditory canal
97
Q

What is the main function of Fibrocartilage and where is it typically found?

A
  • Very durable and tough
  • Limits movement
  • Prevents bone-to-bone contact
  • Resists compression
  • Found around joints, between pubic bones, and between spinal vertebrae
98
Q

What are the different types of Cartilage growth?

A

a. Interstitial growth
- Enlarges cartilage from within
b. Appositional growth
- Growth at outer surface of cartilage

99
Q

What are the main characteristics of Bone (Osseous Tissue)?

A
  • For weight support
  • Calcified (made rigid by calcium salts)
  • Resists shattering (flexible collagen fibers)
100
Q

What are Osteocytes?

A
  • Bone cells that lie in lacunae
  • Arranged around central canals within matrix
  • There are small channels through the matrix called canaliculi that allow for exchange of materials with blood
101
Q

What is the Periosteum?

A

What covers bone; composed of fibrous (outer) and cellular (inner) layers

102
Q

What are Tissue Membranes?

A
  • Physical barriers
  • Line or cover body surfaces
  • Consist of an epithelium supported by connective tissue
103
Q

What are the 4 types of Tissue Membranes?

A
  1. Mucous membranes
  2. Serous membranes
  3. Cutaneous membranes
  4. Synovial membranes
104
Q

Where are Mucous Membranes found?

A
  • Lines passageways that have external connections

- In digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts

105
Q

The epithelial surfaces of Mucous Membranes must be moist in order to…

A
  • Reduce friction

- Facilitate absorption or secretion

106
Q

What is Lamina Propria?

A

Areolar tissue in mucous membranes

107
Q

Where are Serous Membranes found?

A
  • Line cavities that do not open to the outside
  • Thin but strong
  • Parietal portion lines inner surface of cavity
  • Visceral portion (serosa) covers the organs
  • Serous fluid reduces friction
108
Q

What are the different areas that make up Serous Membranes and where are they located?

A

a. Peritoneum
- Lines peritoneal cavity
- Covers abdominal organs
b. Pleura
- Lines pleural cavities
- Covers lungs
c. Pericardium
- Lines pericardial cavity
- Covers heart

109
Q

What is the Cutaneous Membrane?

A
  • Skin that covers the body

- Thick, relatively waterproof, and usually dry

110
Q

What is the Synovial Membrane?

A
  • Lines synovial joint cavities
  • Movement stimulates production of synovial fluid for lubrication
  • Lacks a true epithelium
111
Q

Muscle Tissue is specialized for…

A

Contraction

112
Q

What are the 3 types of Muscle Tissue?

A
  1. Skeletal muscle
    - Large muscles responsible for body movement
  2. Cardiac muscle
    - Found only in the heart
  3. Smooth muscle
    - Found in walls of hollow, contracting organs
113
Q

Skeletal Muscle Tissue is consisted/composed of what?

A
  • Long, thin cells called muscle fibers
  • Cell do not divide
  • New fibers are produced by divisions of myosatellite cells
  • Has a striated voluntary muscle
114
Q

What is the main function of Skeletal Muscle Tissue and where is it typically found?

A
  • Moves/stabilizes position of skeleton
  • Guards entrances/exits to digestive, respiratory, and urinary tracts
  • Generates heat
  • Protects internal organs
  • Combined with connective tissues and neural tissues in skeletal muscles
115
Q

Cardiac Muscle Tissue is consisted/composed of what?

A
  • Cells are short, branched and striated
  • Single nucleus
  • Cells are interconnected by intercalated discs
  • Regulated by pacemaker cells
116
Q

What is the main function of Cardiac Muscle Tissue and where is it typically found?

A
  • Circulates blood
  • Maintains blood pressure
  • Heart
117
Q

What is Smooth Muscle Tissue consisted/composed of?

A
  • Small and spindle shaped (can divide and regenerate)
  • Nonstriated involuntary muscle
  • Single, central nucleus
118
Q

What is the main function of Smooth Muscle Tissue and where is it typically found?

A
  • Moves food, urine, and reproductive tract secretions
  • Controls diameter of respiratory passageways
  • Regulates diameter of blood vessels
  • Found in walls of blood vessels in digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive organs
119
Q

Nervous Tissue is specialized for…

A

Conducting electrical impulses

120
Q

Nervous Tissue is concentrated where?

A

In the brain and spinal cord

121
Q

What types of cells are found in Nervous Tissue?

A
  • Neurons

- Neuroglia (supporting cells)

122
Q

What are the parts that make up a Neuron?

A

a. Cell body
- Contains the nucleus and nucleolus
b. Dendrites
- Short branches extending from cell body
- Receives incoming signals
c. Axon (nerve fiber)
- Long, thin extension of the cell body
- Carries outgoing electrical signals to their destination

123
Q

What is Neuroglia and what are its main functions?

A
  • Maintains physical structure of tissues
  • Repairs tissue framework after injury
  • Performs phagocytosis
  • Provides nutrients to neurons
  • Regulates composition of the interstitial fluid surrounding neurons
124
Q

Tissues respond to injury in two stages…

A
  1. Inflammation (inflammatory response)

2. Regeneration (to restore normal function)

125
Q

Inflammatory Response can be triggered by…

A
  • Trauma (physical injury)

- Infection (presence of pathogens)

126
Q

Damaged cells release…

A
  • Prostaglandins
  • Proteins
  • Potassium ions
127
Q

Damaged connective tissue activates…

A

Mast cells

128
Q

Define Necrosis

A

Tissue destruction that begins several hours after injury

129
Q

Define Abscess

A

Pus trapped in an enclosed area

130
Q

The ability to regenerate varies among tissues. Explain how…

A
  • Epithelia, connective tissues (except cartilage), and smooth muscle regenerate well
  • Skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and nervous tissues regenerate poorly (if at all)
  • Damaged cardiac muscle cells are replaced by fibrous tissue through fibrosis
131
Q

What is Mast Cell Activation?

A

The process when an injury damages connective tissue and mast cells release a variety of chemicals and stimulates inflammation

132
Q

Explain the process of Inflammation…

A
  • Produces several indications of injury (cardinal signs of inflammation)
  • Includes redness, heat (warmth), swelling, pain, and sometimes loss of function
  • Inflammation may also result from presence of pathogens (ex. harmful bacteria within tissues)
133
Q

Speed and effectiveness of tissue regeneration decrease with age, due to…

A
  • Slowing of repair and maintenance activities
  • Hormonal alterations
  • Reduced physical activity
134
Q

What are the main effects of aging on the body?

A
  • Chemical and structural tissue changes
  • Thinner epithelia
  • Fragile connective tissues
  • Increased bruising
  • Brittle bones
  • Cardiovascular disease
  • Mental deterioration

Anatomy and Physiology Lecture (12 decks)

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