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Anatomy and Physiology Lecture > Chapter 2 - The Chemical Level of Organization > Flashcards

Chapter 2 - The Chemical Level of Organization Flashcards

1
Q

What is the study pf Chemistry?

A
  • Science dealing with the structure of matter
  • Including structure of atoms, basic chemical building blocks, and how atoms combine to form increasingly complex structures
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2
Q

What is Matter?

A

Anything that takes up space and has mass; made up of atoms

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3
Q

What makes up Matter?

A

Made up of atoms joined together to form chemicals with different characteristics (these chemical characteristics determine physiology at molecular and cellular levels)

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4
Q

What are the different types of subatomic particles?

A

a. Protons - positive charge; 1 mass unit
b. Neutrons - neutral charge; 1 mass unit
c. Electrons - negative charge; low mass

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5
Q

What are the different components of atomic structure?

A

a. Atomic number - number of protons
b. Nucleus - contains protons and neutrons
c. Electron cloud
d. Electron shell

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6
Q

What is an Electron Cloud?

A

A spherical area that contains electrons

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7
Q

What is an Electron Shell?

A

A two-dimensional representation of an electron cloud

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8
Q

What are the principal elements in the human body?

A

a. Oxygen
b. Carbon
c. Hydrogen
d. Nitrogen
e. Calcium
f. Phosphorus
g. Potassium
h. Sodium
i. Chlorine
j. Magnesium
k. Sulfur
l. Iron
m. Iodine

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9
Q

What is the significance of Oxygen?

A

A component of water and other compounds; gaseous form essential for respiration

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10
Q

What is the significance of Carbon?

A

Found in ALL organic molecules

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11
Q

What is the significance of Hydrogen?

A

A component of water and most other compounds in the body

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12
Q

What is the significance of Nitrogen?

A

Found in proteins, nucleic acids, and other organic compounds

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13
Q

What is the significance of Calcium?

A

Found in bones and teeth; important for membrane function, nerve impulses, muscle contraction, and blood clotting

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14
Q

What is the significance of Phosphorus?

A

Found in bones and teeth, nucleic acids, and high-energy compounds

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15
Q

What is the significance of Potassium?

A

Important for proper membrane function, nerve impulses, and muscle contraction

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16
Q

What is the significance of Sodium?

A

Important for blood volume, membrane function, nerve impulses, and muscle contraction

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17
Q

What is the significance of Chlorine?

A

Important for blood volume, membrane function, and water absorption

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18
Q

What is the significance of Magnesium?

A

A cofactor for many enzymes

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19
Q

What is the significance of Sulfur?

A

Found in many proteins

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20
Q

What is the significance of Iron?

A

Essential for oxygen transport and energy capture

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21
Q

What is the significance of Iodine?

A

A component of hormones of the thyroid gland

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22
Q

What is the difference between a typical hydrogen nucleus, a deuterium nucleus and a tritium nucleus?

A
  • Typical hydrogen nucleus contains 1 proton and no neutrons
  • Deuterium nucleus contains 1 proton and 1 neutron
  • Tritium nucleus contains 1 proton and 2 neutrons
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23
Q

What is an Element?

A

A pure substance composed of atoms of one kind

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24
Q

What are Isotopes?

A

Versions of elements based on mass number

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25
Q

What is Mass Number?

A

Number of protons plus the number of neutrons

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26
Q

What is Atomic Weight?

A

The average of the different atomic masses and proportions of different isotopes

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27
Q

How is the reactivity of an atom determined?

A
  • By the electrons in the electron cloud

- Electron clouds contain shells, or energy levels, that can hold a limited number of electrons

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28
Q

Explain how Electron Cloud’s shells are filled with electrons…

A
  • Lower shells fill first

- Outermost shell is known as the Valence Shell and it determines bonding

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29
Q

__________ _______ form molecules and compounds.

A

Chemical bonds

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30
Q

What is the difference between a Molecule and a Compound?

A
  • A molecule is two or more atoms joined by strong bonds
  • A compound is two or more atoms of different elements joined by strong or weak bonds
  • **Not all molecules are compounds and not all compounds consist of molecules
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31
Q

What is Molecular Weight?

A

The molecular weight of a molecule or compound is the sum of the atomic weights of its atoms

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32
Q

Chemical bonds involve _________, _________, and __________ electrons.

A

Sharing, gaining, losing

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33
Q

What are the 3 major types of Chemical Bonds?

A
  1. Ionic bonds
  2. Covalent bonds
  3. Hydrogen bonds
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34
Q

What is an Ion?

A

An atom with an electric charge

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35
Q

What is an Ionic Bond?

A

When one atom (the electron donor) loses one or more electrons and becomes a cation; another atom (the electron acceptor) gains those same electrons and becomes an anion

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36
Q

Ionic Bonds are attractions between ________ and _________.

A

Cations (positive ions); anions (negative ions)

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37
Q

What is a Covalent Bond?

A

A strong bond involving shared electrons; one electron is donated by each atom to make the pair of electrons

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38
Q

What are the main different types of Covalent Bonds?

A

a. Single Covalent Bond - sharing one pair of electrons
b. Double Covalent Bond - sharing two pairs of electrons
c. Triple Covalent Bond - sharing three pairs of electrons

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39
Q

What are Nonpolar Covalent Bonds?

A

Equal sharing of electrons between atoms that have equal pull on the electrons

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40
Q

What are Polar Covalent Bonds?

A

Unequal sharing of electrons because one atom has a disproportionately strong pull on the electrons

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41
Q

Polar Covalent Bonds form…

A

Polar molecules (like water)

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42
Q

What are Hydrogen Bonds?

A

Weak polar bonds between adjacent molecules based on electrical attractions (involves attractions between a slight positive and a slight negative charge)

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43
Q

Hydrogen bonds between H2O molecules cause…

A

Surface tension

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44
Q

What are the different states of matter?

A

a. Solid - constant volume and shape
b. Liquid - constant volume but changes shape
c. Gas - changes volume and shape

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45
Q

In a chemical reaction either ____ bonds are _______ or ________ bonds are _________.

A

New, formed; existing, broken

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46
Q

What are Reactants?

A

Materials going into a reaction

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47
Q

What are Products?

A

Materials coming out of a reaction

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48
Q

What is Metabolism?

A

All of the reactions that are occurring at one time

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49
Q

Define Energy

A

The capacity to do work

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50
Q

Define Work

A

Movement of an object or change in matter

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51
Q

Define Kinetic Energy

A

Energy of motion

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52
Q

Define Potential Energy

A

Stored energy

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53
Q

Define Chemical Energy

A

Potential energy stored in chemical bonds

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54
Q

What are the different types of Chemical Reactions?

A

a. Decomposition
b. Synthesis
c. Exchange
d. Reversible

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55
Q

Explain the process of a Decomposition Reaction…

A
  • Also known as Catabolism
  • Process that breaks chemical bonds
  • AB –> A + B
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56
Q

Explain the process of a Synthesis Reaction…

A
  • Also known as Anabolism
  • Process that forms chemical bonds
  • A + B –> AB
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57
Q

Explain the process of a Exchange Reaction…

A
  • Involves decomposition first, then synthesis

- AB + CD –> AD + CB

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58
Q

Explain the process of a Reversible Reaction…

A
  • A + B .AB
  • Reversible reactions seek equilibrium, balancing opposing reaction rates
  • **Even at equilibrium, the amounts of chemicals do not change even though the reactions are still occurring (when reactants are added or removed, reaction rates adjust to reach a new equilibrium)
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59
Q

What is Activation Energy?

A

The amount of energy needed to start a reaction

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60
Q

What are Enzymes?

A

Protein catalysts that lower the activation energy of reactions

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61
Q

What is the difference between Exergonic Reactions and Endergonic Reactions?

A

a. Exergonic Reactions - reactions that release energy

b. Endergonic Reactions - reactions that absorb energy

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62
Q

What are Nutrients?

A

Essential molecules obtained from food

63
Q

What are Metabolites?

A

Molecules made or broken down in the body

64
Q

What are examples of Inorganic Compounds?

A
  • Carbon dioxide
  • Oxygen
  • Water
  • Inorganic acids
  • Bases
  • Salts
65
Q

What are examples of Organic Compounds?

A
  • **Molecules containing carbon and hydrogen
  • Carbohydrates
  • Proteins
  • Lipids
  • Nucleic acids
66
Q

Water accounts for up to ____ of total body weight.

A

2/3

67
Q

What are Solutions?

A

What is produced from water; solutions are a uniform mixture of two or more substances that consists of a solvent or liquid and solutes (solutes are the dissolved substances)

68
Q

What are the main properties of Water?

A
  • It is a universal solvent (many molecules are water soluble)
  • Water serves as a reactant in some reactions
  • It has a high heat capacity
  • Used as lubrication to moisten and reduce friction
69
Q

What is Heat Capacity?

A

The heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance 1 degrees celsius

70
Q

Is water considered a polar or nonpolar molecule?

A

Polar molecule

71
Q

Many inorganic compounds split into smaller molecules via __________ in _______.

A

Dissociation; water

72
Q

What is the process of Ionization?

A

Dissociation into ions

73
Q

What are different types of important electrolytes that dissociate in body fluids?

A

a. NaCl (sodium chloride)
b. KCl (potassium chloride)
c. CaPO4 (calcium phosphate)
d. NaHCO3 (sodium bicarbonate)
e. MgCl2 (magnesium chloride)
f. Na2HPO4 (sodium hydrogen phosphate)
g. Na2SO4 (sodium sulfate)

74
Q

What are Electrolytes?

A

Inorganic ions that conduct electricity in solutions

75
Q

What are some properties/characteristics of Hydrophilic Compounds?

A
  • Water loving
  • Includes ions and polar molecules
  • Interacts with water
76
Q

What are some properties/characteristics of Hydrophobic compounds?

A
  • Water fearing
  • Includes nonpolar molecules, fats, and oils
  • Does not interact with water
77
Q

What is a Colloid?

A

A solution containing dispersed proteins or other large molecules (ex. blood plasma)

78
Q

What are Suspensions?

A

Contains large particles that settle out of solution (ex. whole blood)

79
Q

What are the characteristics of a neutral pH?

A
  • A balance of H+ and OH-

- Pure water = 7.0

80
Q

What are the characteristics of an acidic pH?

A
  • Lower than 7.0
  • High H+ concentration
  • Low OH- concentration
81
Q

What are the characteristics of a basic (alkaline) pH?

A
  • Higher than 7.0
  • Low H+ concentration
  • High OH- concentration
82
Q

What does the pH of human blood typically range between?

A

Ranges from 7.35 to 7.45

83
Q

The pH scale has an _______ relationship with H+ concentration; explain…

A

Inverse; more H+ ions means lower pH, fewer H+ ions means higher pH

84
Q

What is an Acid and what are its main characteristics?

A
  • Proton donor
  • A solute that ADDS hydrogen ions to a solution
  • Strong acids dissociate completely in solution
85
Q

What is a Base and what are its main characteristics?

A
  • Proton acceptor
  • A solute that removes hydrogen ions from a solution
  • Strong bases dissociate completely in solution
86
Q

What are the characteristics of weak acids and weak bases?

A
  • Fail to dissociate completely

- Help to balance the pH

87
Q

What is Salt?

A

A solute that dissociates into cations and anions other than hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions

88
Q

What are Buffers?

A

Buffers are what stabilize pH of solutions (neutralize strong acids or strong bases)

89
Q

Buffer Systems often involve a ______ ______ and its _______ ______.

A

Weak acid; weak base

90
Q

Each macromolecule of life is made up of _________ subunits. Each of these __________ join together to form a __________.

A

Monomer; monomer; polymer

91
Q

What are the main characteristics of organic molecules?

A
  • Contain H, C, and usually O
  • Are covalently bonded
  • Contain functional groups that determine their chemistry
  • Include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
92
Q

What are Carbohydrates?

A
  • Usually contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio
  • Some are isomers (molecules with the same molecular formula but different structures)
93
Q

What are Monosaccharides?

A
  • Simple sugars with 3-7 carbon atoms

Ex. Glucose, fructose, galactose

94
Q

What are Disaccharides?

A
  • Two monosaccharides condensed by dehydration synthesis

Ex. Sucrose, maltose

95
Q

What are Polysaccharides?

A
  • Polymers of many sugars condensed by dehydration synthesis

Ex. Glycogen, starch, cellulose

96
Q

What are Lipids and what are they mainly composed of?

A
  • Mainly hydrophobic molecules such as fats, oils, and waxes
  • Made mostly of carbon and hydrogen atoms
  • Include fatty acids, eicosanoids, glycerides, steroids, phospholipids, and glycolipids
97
Q

What are Fatty Acids?

A

Long chains of carbon and hydrogen with a carboxyl group (COOH) at one end (relatively nonpolar; except the carboxyl group)

98
Q

Fatty acids may either be saturated or unsaturated; explain both…

A

a. Saturated with hydrogen
- No double bonds in the hydrocarbon tail
b. Unsaturated
- One or more double bonds in tail
- Monounsaturated = one double bond
- Polyunsaturated = two or more double bonds

99
Q

Eicosanoids cannot be synthesized, so must be obtained from…

A

The diet

100
Q

What are the main types of Eicosanoids?

A

a. Leukotrienes - active in immune systems

b. Prostaglandins - short-chain fatty acids found in local hormones

101
Q

What are Glycerides?

A

Fatty acids that are attached to a glycerol molecule

102
Q

What are the main types of Glycerides?

A

a. Monoglyceride - glycerol plus one fatty acid
b. Diglyceride - glycerol plus two fatty acids
c. Triglycerides - glycerol plus three fatty acids (also called neutral fats)

103
Q

What are the 3 main important functions of Triglycerides?

A
  1. Energy source
  2. Insulation
  3. Protection
104
Q

What are Steroids?

A

Four-ringed carbon structures with an assortment of functional groups

105
Q

What are the main examples of Steroids?

A
  • Cholesterol (component of plasma cell membranes)
  • Sex hormones such as estrogen and testosterone
  • Steroid hormones such as corticosteroids and calcitriol
  • Steroid derivatives called bile salts
106
Q

What are the components that make up Phospholipids and Glycolipids?

A
  • Contain a diglyceride attached to either a phosphate group (phospholipid) or a sugar (glycolipid)
  • Generally, both have hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails
107
Q

When large numbers of Phospholipids and Glycolipids are in water, they form ________ with the ___________ _______ facing the water molecules, and the __________ ______ on the inside of each droplet.

A

Micelles; hydrophilic heads; hydrophobic tails

108
Q

What are Proteins?

A

The most abundant and important organic molecules made up of 20 amino acids that are monomers that combine together

109
Q

What are the basic elements that make up Proteins?

A
  • Carbon
  • Hydrogen
  • Oxygen
  • Nitrogen
110
Q

What are the 7 major protein functions?

A
  1. Support - structural proteins
  2. Movement - contractile proteins
  3. Transport - transport (carrier) proteins
  4. Buffering - regulation of pH
  5. Metabolic regulation - enzymes
  6. Coordination and control - hormones
  7. Defense - antibodies
111
Q

Explain the structure of a Protein…

A
  • Long chains of amino acids
  • Each amino acid consists of…
    a. Central carbon atom
    b. Hydrogen atom
    c. Amino group (-NH2)
    d. Carboxyl group (-COOH)
    e. Variable side chain, or R group
112
Q

Linking 2 amino acids together requires what?

A
  • Requires dehydration synthesis between
    a. Amino group of 1 amino acid and carboxyl group of another amino acid
  • Forms a peptide bond
  • Resulting molecule is a peptide
113
Q

What are the main Protein shapes?

A

a. Primary structure
b. Secondary structure
c. Tertiary structure
d. Quaternary structure

114
Q

Explain the Primary Protein structure…

A

The sequence of amino acids along a polypeptide

115
Q

Explain the Secondary Protein structure…

A

Hydrogen bonds along the length of the polypeptide chain forming spirals or pleats (ex. simple spiral alpha helix or flattened arrangement beta sheet)

116
Q

Explain the Tertiary Protein structure…

A

Coiling and folding of polypeptide that produces 3D shapes

117
Q

Explain the Quaternary Protein structure…

A

Final protein complex produced by interacting polypeptide chains

118
Q

What are Globular Proteins?

A
  • Soluble spheres with active functions

- Shape is based on tertiary structure

119
Q

What are Fibrous Proteins?

A
  • Structural sheets or strands

- Shape is based on secondary or quaternary structures

120
Q

What are Enzymes?

A

Catalysts; proteins that lower the activation energy of a chemical reaction (they are not changed or used up in the reaction)

121
Q

Enzymes exhibit what characteristics?

A

a. Specificity - catalyze only one type of reaction
b. Saturation limits - enzymes become saturated
c. Regulation - by other cellular chemicals

122
Q

Explain the process of Enzymes acting as catalysts…

A
  • Substrates (reactants) bind to active site of enzyme
  • Once bound to the active site, the substrates are held together, making interaction easier
  • Substrate binding alters shape of enzyme and this change promotes product formation
  • Product detaches from enzyme (entire process can now be repeated)
123
Q

What are Cofactors?

A

An ion or molecule that binds to an enzyme before substrates can bind

124
Q

What are Coenzymes?

A

Nonprotein organic cofactors (vitamins)

125
Q

How does temperature and pH affect enzyme function?

A
  • Denatures it (changes in shape and loss of function)
126
Q

What are Glycoproteins and what are they composed of?

A
  • Large proteins + small carbohydrates involved in mucus production
  • Includes…
    a. Enzymes
    b. Antibodies
    c. Hormones
    d. Components of plasma membranes
127
Q

What are Proteoglycans?

A
  • Large polysaccharides + polypeptides

- Increase viscosity of fluids

128
Q

What are Nucleic Acids?

A
  • Large organic molecules found in the nucleus

- Stores and processes information

129
Q

What is the role of Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)?

A
  • Determines inherited characteristics
  • Directs protein synthesis
  • Controls enzyme production
  • Controls metabolism
130
Q

What is the role of Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)?

A
  • Controls intermediate steps in protein synthesis
131
Q

Explain the structures of Nucleic Acids…

A
  • DNA and RNA consist of long chains of nucleotides (monomers), which contain…
    a. A pentose sugar (deoxyribose or ribose)
    b. Phosphate group
    c. Nitrogenous base (A, G, T, C, or U)
132
Q

What are the different types of Nitrogenous Bases that form Nucleotides?

A
  1. Purines
    - Adenine
    - Guanine
  2. Pyrimidines
    - Cytosine
    - Thymine (DNA only)
    - Uracil (RNA only)
133
Q

What are DNA structures composed of?

A
  • Consist of a pair of nucleotide chains (called complementary strands)
  • Hydrogen bonds between opposing nitrogenous bases hold the strands together
  • Forms a twisting double delix
134
Q

What are RNA structures composed of?

A
  • Consists of a single chain of nucleotides
135
Q

What are the different types of RNA?

A

a. Messenger RNA (mRNA)
b. Transfer RNA (tRNA)
c. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

136
Q

What are the different complementary base pairings?

A
  • Purines pair with pyrimidines
    a. DNA
  • Adenine (A) bonds to thymine (T)
  • Cytosine (C) bonds to guanine (G)
    b. RNA
  • Uracil (U) replaces thymine (T)
137
Q

What are the Nitrogenous Bases that make up RNA?

A
  • Adenine
  • Guanine
  • Cytosine
  • Uracil
138
Q

What is the number of nucleotides in a typical RNA molecule?

A

Varies from fewer than 100 nucleotides to about 50,000

139
Q

What is the typical shape of a RNA molecule?

A

Varies with hydrogen bonding along the length of the strand; 3 main types (mRNA, rRNA, tRNA)

140
Q

What is the main function of RNA molecules?

A

Performs protein synthesis as directed by DNA

141
Q

What is the sugar that makes up RNA molecules?

A

Ribose

142
Q

What is the sugar that makes up DNA molecules?

A

Deoxyribose

143
Q

What are the nitrogenous bases that make up DNA?

A
  • Adenine
  • Guanine
  • Cytosine
  • Thymine
144
Q

What is the number of nucleotides in a typical DNA molecule?

A

Always more than 45 million

145
Q

What is the typical shape of a DNA molecule?

A

Paired strands coiled in a double helix

146
Q

What is the main function of DNA molecules?

A

Stores genetic information that controls protein synthesis

147
Q

Most high-energy compounds are derived from…

A

Nucleotides

148
Q

What is Phosphorylation?

A

The process of adding a phosphate group to another molecule and produces a high-energy bond

149
Q

What are the main types of high energy compounds?

A
  • Adenosine monophosphate (AMP)
  • Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
  • Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
  • Adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase)
150
Q

What is Adenosine Monophosphate (AMP)?

A

Nucleotide that contains phosphate group

151
Q

What is Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP)?

A

Contains two phosphate groups

152
Q

What is Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)?

A

High-energy compound containing three phosphate groups

153
Q

What is Adenosine Triphosphatase (ATPase)?

A

Enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of ATP to ADP

Anatomy and Physiology Lecture (12 decks)

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