Chapter 3 - Biopsychology Flashcards
theory of evolution by natural selection
- states that organisms that are better suited for environment will survive and reproduce while those poorly suited will die off
- coined by Charles Darwin
chromosones
- are long strings of genetic material known as DNA
- 23 from each parent, 46 total to create genetic makeup of a person
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
- a helix-shaped molecule made up of nucleotide base pairs
- make up genes that hold genetic traits
genes
- control or partially control a number of visible characteristics, known as traits, such as eye color, hair color
allele
- a specific version of a gene
- a single gene may have multiple alleles (e.g. hair color, mult. alleles w/mult. color possibilites)
phenotype
the individual’s inherited physical characteristics, which are a combination of genetic and environmental influences
genotype
the genetic makeup of that individual
dominant allele
having the dominant allele either from one parent (Bb) or both parents (BB) will always result in the phenotype associated with the dominant allele
heterozygous
When someone has a combination of alleles for a given gene (ex. Bb)
homozygous
When someone has two copies of the same allele (ex. BB or bb)
recessive allele
that an individual will only display the smooth chin phenotype if they are homozygous for that recessive allele (bb)
polygenic
- but few human characteristics are controlled by a single gene
- most traits are polygenic: controlled by more than one gene.
mutation
- a sudden, permanent change in a gene
- can be harmful or could give someone an advantage
range of reaction
- our genes set the boundaries on how we can react, while environment interacts with genes to determine where in that range we react
- some people disagree with this idea
genetic environmental correlation
- our genes influence our environment, and our environment influences the expression of our genes
epigenetics
how the same genotype can lead to very different phenotypes
identical twins
- develop from a single fertilized egg that split, so the genetic material is exactly the same in each
- have the same genetic makeup but still have variability in how genes show up
fraternal twins
usually result from two different eggs fertilized by different sperm, so the genetic material varies
nervous system
composed of two basic cell types: glial cells (also known as glia) and neurons
gilial cells (does 4 things)
- provide scaffolding on which the nervous system is built
- help neurons line up closely/w each other to allow communication
- transport nutrients and waste products
- mediate immune responses
neurons
- serve as interconnected information processors that are essential for all of the tasks of the nervous system
semipermeable membrane
- what a neuron’s outer surface is made of
- allows smaller molecules and molecules without an electrical charge to pass through it, while stopping larger or highly charged molecules
soma
- cell body of a neuron
- where the nucleus is located
dendrites
- branching extensions of the soma
axon
- a major extension of the soma
- signals of neurons are transmitted electrically across the soma and down the axon
terminal buttons
- where the signals from the neurons end
synaptic vesicles
- what the terminal buttons contain
neurotrasmitters
- the chemical messengers of the nervous
myelin sheath
- a fatty substance, which coats the axon and acts as an insulator
- increases the speed at which the signal travels
- crucial for the normal operation of the neurons
Nodes of Ranvier
- small gaps that occur down the length of the myelin sheth/axon
synaptic cleft
a very small space between two neurons and is an important site where communication between neurons occurs
receptors
- where neurotransmitters bind on the dendrite of adjacent neuron
- proteins on the cell surface where neurotransmitters attach, vary in shape, with different shapes “matching” different neurotransmitters
membrane potential
- difference in charge across the membrane between the electrical signals that transmit information between neurons
resting potential threshold of excitation
- Between signals, the neuron membrane’s potential is held in a state of readiness
- ions are prepped to to rush across the membrane when neuron goes active
threshold of excitation
- when the charge reaches a certain level and the neuron becomes active and the action potential begins
action potential
- the electrical signal that typically moves from the cell body down the axon to the axon terminals
- jumps in a leapfrog fashion down the axon between the Nodes of Ranvier
all-or-none
the incoming action potential from another neuron is either sufficient or insufficient to reach the threshold of excitation
reuptake
Once the signal to the neuron is delivered, excess neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft drift away, are broken down into inactive fragments, or are reabsorbed
biological perspective
psychologists who focus on the physiological causes of behavior
psychotropic medications
drugs that treat psychiatric symptoms by restoring neurotransmitter balance
central nervous system (CNS)
- part of the nervous system
- comprised of the brain and spinal cord
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
- part of the nervous system
- connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body
somatic nervous system
- subdivision of PNS
- associated with activities traditionally thought of as conscious or voluntary
autonomic nervous system
- controls our internal organs and glands and is generally considered to be outside the realm of voluntary control
sympathetic nervous system
- subdivision of sympathetic nervous system
- involved in preparing the body for stress-related activities
parasympathetic nervous system
- subdivision of sympathetic nervous system
- associated with returning the body to routine, day-to-day operations
homeostasis
a state of equilibrium, or balance, in which biological conditions (such as body temperature) are maintained at optimal levels
fight or flight response
, allows the body access to energy reserves and heightened sensory capacity so that it might fight off a threat or run away to safety.
reuptake inhibitors
- in drugs, prevent unused neurotransmitters from being transported back to the neuron
- allows them to be more effective for longer
agonists
chemicals in psychoactive drugs that mimic a neurotransmitter at the receptor site.
antagonist
psychoactive drugs that blocks or impedes the normal activity of a neurotransmitter at the receptor
motor neurons & sensory neurons
- motor carry instructions from CNS to muscles are efferent fibers (“exit”)
- sensory carry instructions carry sensory information to the CNS are afferent fibers (“arrive”)
spinal cord
- routes messages to and from the brain, connecting it to outside world
- also has automatic processes (like reflexes)
neuroplasticity
- how the nervous system can change and adapt
- Because of neuroplasticity, our brains are constantly changing and adapting
cerebral cortex
- surface of brain (pattern of folds or bumps)
gyri
folds or bumps on cerebral cortex
sulci
grooves on cerebral cortex
longitudinal fissure
the deep groove (the most prominent sulcus) that separates the brain into two halves or hemispheres
hemispheres
the left hemisphere and the right hemisphere of the cerebral cortex
lateralization
- evidence of specialization of function in each hemisphere, mainly regarding differences in language functions
- left hem. controls right half of body, right hem. controls left half of body
corpus callosum
- a thick band of neural fibers that connect the left and right hemisphere of the cerebral cortex
- allows the two to communicate with each other and allows for information being processed
forebrain
- hemispheres of cerebral cortex are part of it
- largest part of the brain
- contains the cerebral cortex and a number of other structures that lie beneath the cortex
frontal lobe
- located in the forward part of the brain
- involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language
motor cortex
- involved in planning and coordinating movement
- inside of the frontal lobe
prefrontal cortex
- responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning
- inside of the frontal lobe
Broca’s area
- responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning
- inside of the frontal lobe
parietal lobe
- involved in processing information from the body’s senses
- immediately behind the frontal lobe
somatosensory cortex
- essential for processing sensory information from across the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain
- inside of the parietal
temporal lobe
- associated with hearing, memory, emotion, and some aspects of language
- located on the side of the head
auditory cortex
- main area responsible for processing auditory information
- inside of the temporal lobe
Wernicke’s area
- important for speech comprehension
- located inside of the temporal lobe
occipital lobe
- contains the primary visual cortex, which is responsible for interpreting incoming visual information
- located at the very back of the brain
thalamus
- a sensory relay for the brain (senses routed through here before going other places for processing)
- located behind the cerebral cortex
limbic system
- involved in processing both emotion and memory
- made up of three parts: hippocampus, amygdala, and the hypothalamus
hippocampus
- essential structure for learning and memory
amygdala
- involved in our experience of emotion and in tying emotional meaning to our memories
hypothalamus
- regulates a number of homeostatic processes, including the regulation of body temperature, appetite, and blood pressure
- regulation of sexual motivation/behavior
midbrain
comprised of structures located deep within the brain, between the forebrain and the hindbrain
reticular formation
- important in regulating the sleep/wake cycle, arousal, alertness, and motor activity
- centered in the midbrain, but extends into forebrain/hindbrain
substantia nigra / ventral tegmental area (VTA)
- Both regions contain cell bodies that produce the neurotransmitter dopamine, and both are critical for movement
- involved in mood, reward, and addiction
- located in midbrain
hindbrain
- located at the back of the head and looks like and extension of the spinal cord
- contains the medulla, pons, and cerebellum
medulla
- controls the automatic processes of the autonomic nervous system, such as breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate
- located in hindbrain
pons
- serves to connect the hindbrain to the rest of the brain
- regulates brain activity during sleep
- located in hindbrain
cerebullum
- receives messages from parts of body to control balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills
- thought to help process types of memories
- located in hindbrain
computerized technology (CT)
- involves taking a number of x-rays of a particular section of a person’s body or brain
- often used to determine if someone has a tumor
positron emission tomography (PET)
- scans create pictures of the living, active brain after being injected w/mildly radioactive substance
- allow better imaging of the activity of neurotransmitter receptors and open new avenues in schizophrenia research
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
- a person is placed inside a machine that generates a strong magnetic field
- used to compare the brains of healthy individuals to the brains of individuals diagnosed with psychological disorders
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
- operates same as MRI, but shows changes in brain activity over time by tracking blood flow and oxygen levels
- provides more detailed images of the brain’s structure in PET scans
electroencephalography (EEG)
- providing a measure of a brain’s electrical activity
- helpful to gain an understanding of the overall activity of a person’s brain, without needing information on the actual location
- helpful to researchers studying sleep patterns
endocrine system
consists of a series of glands that produce chemical substances known as hormones
horomones
- chemical messengers that must bind to a receptor in order to send their signal
- secreted into the bloodstream and travel through the body, affecting any cells that contain receptors for them
- effects are widespread
pituitary gland
- its messenger hormones control all the other glands in the endocrine system
- descends from the hypothalamus at the base of the brain
- secretes growth hormone, endorphins for pain relief
thyroid gland
releases hormones that regulate growth, metabolism, and appetite.
adrenal glands
sit atop our kidneys and secrete hormones involved in the stress response
pancreas
an internal organ that secretes hormones that regulate blood sugar levels
gonads
- secrete sexual hormones, which are important in reproduction
- mediate both sexual motivation and behavior
diabetes
pancreas doesn’t make enough insulin, so they must take medications that stimulate or replace insulin production
tabula rasa
- idea that you’re a blank slate when you’re born and shaped by environment
- not totally accurate
heritability
a statistic that measures how much variation in a trait is accounted for by genetics
serotonin
involved in sleep, appetite, sensory perception, pain suppression, mood
dopamine
voluntary movement, sleep, learning, memory, emotion
acetylcholine
muscle action, cognition, memory, emotion
norepinephrine
excitement related to stress, heart rate, alertness (fight or flight)
gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
major inhibitory neurotransmitter
right brain
- part of cerebrum
- intuitive, spatial problem solving, nonverbal sounds
left brain
- part of cerebrum
- stronger on rational skills, cognition, language
cerebrum
- largest brain structure
- consists of upper part of brain and divided into two cerebral hemispheres which are connected by the corpus callosum
blindsight
- If something is put in this ‘blind spot’, someone could become aware of something that other systems can’t process
- happens bc of amygdala
cerebellum
- regulates movement and balance
- involved in remembering simple skills, problem solving
