CHAPTER 2: Theories of Development Flashcards
1
Q
What are the similarities and differences between folk theories and scientific theories?
A
Scientific theories are similar to folk theories in that they both try to explain facts, concepts, observations, and sensations that human beings encounter at every moment. However, unlike folk theories, they lead to new insight and elicit alternate interpretations.
2
Q
What three things do theories do?
A
Theories produce hypotheses, generate discoveries, and offer practical guidance.
3
Q
How is a norm different from a theory?
A
A norm is a fact or event the can be calculated, whereas a theory is broader and deeper—it is a group of ideas, assumptions, and generalizations that provide a framework for understanding the patterns and problems of development.
4
Q
What is the relationship between theories and facts?
A
A theory raises questions and suggests hypotheses, which leads to research and data that may eventually reveal a norm.
5
Q
Who develops theories—everyone or just scientists?
A
Everyone. Humans spontaneously Develop theories about everything they observe.
6
Q
What is the basic emphasis of psychoanalytic theory?
A
Our unconscious drives and motives influence every aspect of our thinking and behavior.
7
Q
What similarities and differences are found between Freud’s and Erikson’s theories of adulthood?
A
While both Erikson and Freud acknowledged the importance of the unconscious and of early-child experience, Erikson emphasized family and culture, not sexual urges.
8
Q
How does the central focus of behaviorism differ from psychoanalytic theory?
A
Behaviorism arose in direct opposition to the psychoanalytic emphasis on unconscious, hidden urges. Behaviorists emphasize nurture, the specific, observable responses from other people and the environment to whatever a developing person does.
9
Q
When is social learning most powerful?
A
Early adolescence, when children want to be similar to their peers.
10
Q
What did Piaget discover that earlier psychologists did not realize?
A
He discovered that infants were capable of thought and curiosity, and that how children think change over time.
11
Q
How does information processing contribute to the cognitive revolution?
A
Unlike Piaget’s stage theory, information processing provides a detailed description of the steps of cognition, with attention to perceptual and neurological processes.
12
Q
What does neuroscience make possible that was impossible for Freud, Skinner, or Piaget?
A
It enables discoveries within the brain that can support or contradict various theories, e.g., that infants’ brains are more active when they hear the language their mother spoke in the womb.
13
Q
Why is the sociocultural perspective particularly relevant within the U.S.?
A
Cultural differences within the U.S. can be related to SES and gender, not just ethnicity or race.
14
Q
How do mentors and mentees interact within the zone of proximal development?
A
Mentors find the area in which learners have skills, knowledge, and concepts within their grasp but have not yet mastered them. Mentors engage with the mentees in that zone so that learning is mutually exciting, which facilitates success.
15
Q
Why would behaviors and emotions that benefited ancient humans be apparent today ?
A
Some of the best qualities, such s cooperation, spirituality, and self-sacrifice, may have originated thousands of years ago, when groups of people survived because they took care of one another.
16
Q
What is the evolutionary explanation for mating patterns and promiscuity?
A
Mating often (and for men, with multiple partners) ensured that more babies were born at a time when survival was much more difficult.
17
Q
What are the criticisms of each of the five theories?
A
- Psychoanalytic Theory: too subjective
- Behaviorism: too mechanistic
- Cognitive Theory: undervalues emotions
- Sociocultural Theory: neglects individual choice
- Evolutionary Theory: ignores the power of religion, laws, and social norms
18
Q
Why are most developmentalists eclectic in regard to theories?
A
Not being tied to any one particular theory helps reduce bias.
19
Q
Why is it useful to know more than one theory to explain human behavior?
A
Since no single theory provides all the answers about development, developmentalists need to understand the content, methods, and concepts of all of them.
20
Q
Psychoanalytic theory, behaviorism, and cognitive theory are considered “grand theories” because they are comprehensive, enduring, and widely applied. TRUE or FALSE
A
TRUE
21
Q
Proponents of behaviorism believe that all behavior arises directly from operant or classical conditioning. TRUE or FALSE
A
FALSE
22
Q
Piaget believed that how people think and how they understand the world depends on their age. TRUE or FALSE
A
TRUE
23
Q
Developmental psychologists are increasingly aware that culture shapes our responses. TRUE or FALSE
A
TRUE
24
Q
According to sociocultural theory, learning is active. TRUE or FALSE
A
TRUE
25
The newest theory of development stresses that all humans, at the
basic level, are alike. TRUE or FALSE
TRUE
26
According to evolutionary theory, some traits result from genetic inheritance alone. TRUE or FALSE
FALSE
27
All developmental theories attempt to explain the broad spectrum of human development. TRUE or FALSE
FALSE
28
Cognitive theory has been faulted for overvaluing emotions. TRUE or FALSE
FALSE
29
Most developmentalists incorporate ideas from several theories into their thinking. TRUE or FALSE
True
30
The anecdote about Larry DePrimo illustrates three aspects shared by every theory, scientific as well as folk; What are the 3 aspects?
1) behaviour can be surprising
2) humans develop theories to explain everything
3) experience and culture matter
31
Definition of developmental theory:
Groups of ideas, assumptions, and generalisations that interpret and illuminate the thousands of observations that have been made about human growth
Framework for understanding how and why people change as they grow older
32
What do theories about human development really do?
- produce hypotheses
- offer practical guidance
- generate discoveries
33
What is the psychoanalytic theory?
Irrational, unconscious drives and motives, often originating in childhood, underlie human behaviour
34
What were the 3 main concepts Freud covered regarding his psychosexual theory?
- Five psychosexual stages
- Early conflict resolution determines personality
- Personality had three parts: id, ego, and superego
35
What were the 2 main concepts Erik Erikson covered regarding his psychosocial theory?
- Eight developmental stages, each characterised by challenging developmental crisis
- Five psychosocial stages built on Freud's theory, but added three adult stages
36
How does Erikson differ from Freud?
- His stages emphasises family and culture, not sexual urges
- Recognised adult development, with three stages after adolescence
37
What is behaviourism?
The study of observable behaviour, and the theory (learning theory) explaining the acquisition of habits and competencies
38
What are the three behavioural learning processes?
- Classical conditioning
- Operant conditioning
- Social Learning Theory
39
What does conditioning propose?
proposes that learning takes place through processes by which responses become linked to particular stimuli
40
What does the social learning theory describe?
the laws and processes by which behaviour is learned
41
What does the social learning theory focus on?
focuses on observable behaviour
42
What is classical conditioning?
the learning process by which a natural (unconditioned) response becomes triggered by a formerly neutral stimulus by repeatedly pairing it with the stimulus that naturally triggers that response
type of learning that happens unconsciously
43
What is operant conditioning?
the learning process by which a particular action is followed by something desired (which makes the person or animal more likely to repeat the action) or by something unwanted (which makes the action less likely to be repeated).
44
What is social learning theory?
An extension of behaviourism that emphasises the influence that other person's behaviour. Even without specific reinforcement, every individual learns many things through observation and imitation of other people
45
Who discovered classical conditioning?
Ivan Pavlov
46
Who is John Watson?
One of the earliest proponent of behaviourism and learning theory
47
Behaviourists in the United States:
- argued that scientists should examine only what they could observe and measure
- proposed that anything can be learned with focus on behaviour
- no specific stages proposed
48
What did B. F. Skinner agree with Watson about?
that psychology should focus on the scientific study of behaviour
49
What was B. F. Skinner best known for?
experiments with rats, pigeons, and his own daughter.
50
B. F. Skinner designed a glass-enclosed crib in which temperature, humidity, and perceptual stimulation could be controlled to do what?
to make his daughter's crib time in the crib enjoyable and educational
51
What is the criticism the psychoanalytic theory and behaviourism receive?
- Many psychologists reject psychoanalytic theory as unscientific
- Other reject behaviourism as demanding of human potential
52
What is the cognitive theory?
Thoughts and expectations profoundly affect actions, attitudes, beliefs and assumptions. Changes in how people think over time.
53
What did Jean Piaget propose about cognitive development?
Cognitive development only occurs in 4 major age-related periods, or stages and that intellectual advancement occurs lifelong because humans seek cognitive equilibrium
54
What is a schema?
A mental container we build to hold our experiences .
55
How can a little girl use her "dog" schema when encountering a cat?
- She can assimilate the experience into her schema by referring to the cat as a "dog
OR
- She can accommodate her animal schema by separating the cat, and even different types of dogs into separate schemas
56
What is assimilation?
Experiences are interpreting to fit onto, or assimilate with, old ideas
57
What is accommodation?
Old ideas are restructures to include or accommodate, new experiences
58
What is Cognitive Equilibrium?
– State of mental balance, no confusion; New ideas through past ideas interpreted; Needed for intellectual advancement
– Easy equilibrium not always possible; If new experience is not understandable, cognitive disequilibrium can occur.
59
What is the information-processing theory?
- representative of a newer version of cognitive theory
- Compares human thinking processes, by analogy, to computer analysis of data, including sensory input, connections, stored memories, and output.
60
What does the EEG (electroencephalogram) measure?
electrical activity in the cortex
61
What is EEG activity dependent on?
the level of consciousness
62
What can an EEG do?
It can differentiate active brains: from sleeping brains and brain states that are half-awake
63
How does ERP (event-related potential) work?
The amplitude and frequency of brain electrical activity changes when a particular stimulus (called and event) occurs
1. The ERP established the usual patterns
2. Researchers present a stimulus (ex. word, sound) that causes a blip in electrical activity
64
What does and ERP indicate?
how quickly and extensively people react
65
How does MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) work?
The water molecules in various parts of the brain each have a magnetic current, and measuring that current allows measurement of myelin, neurons, and the fluid in the brain
66
How does fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) work?
• Blood flows increases in areas of brain activated by cognitive task
– Measure: haemoglobin (carries oxygen) contains a ferrous
(iron) molecule ~ has magnetic properties
– fMRI indicates presence of brain activity because haemoglobins molecules in areas of high brain activity lose some oxygen they are transporting → more magnetic → molecules respond to magnetic field
* Detects changes in magnetic response of haemoglobin (BOLD signal)
* Red & yellow → increases in brain activity; Blue & Green → decreases in brain activity
67
What are voxels?
voxels are small cube-shaped areas of brain about 2 or 3 mm on a side — small units of analysis created by fMRI scanner (like pixels)
68
How does a PET (positron emission tomography) work?
When a specific part of the brain is active, the blood flows more rapidly in that part.
If radioactive dye is injected into the bloodstream and a person lies very still within a scanner while seeing pictures or other stimuli, changes in blood flow indicate thought.
69
What can a PET reveal?
PET can reveal the volume of neurotransmitters; the rise or fall of brain oxygen, glucose, amino acids; and more.
70
What is different about the newer theories compared to the grand theories ?
- are multicultural
- Are multidisciplinary
- are most closely tied to current view of science of human development
- include sociocultural theory and universal theory
71
What is the sociocultural theory?
thought that human development results from the dynamic interaction between developing persons and their surrounding society
cultural is integral to a person's development
72
What did Lev Vyogotsky focus on?
interaction between culture and education
concepts of apprenticeship In thinking and guided participation
73
What is zone of proximal development?
skills, knowledge, and concepts that learner is close to acquiring but cannot master without help
74
What is Process of joint construction?
new knowledge obtained through mentoring
75
What is the sociocultural perspective?
– Is viewed not as something external that impinges on developing persons but as integral to their development every day via social and cultural experiences
– Influences inclusion of culture into contemporary research
– Sheds new light on cultural differences in many areas, including attachment, gender, and ethnic prejudice
76
What is the evolutionary perspective?
– Integrates explanations for many issues in
human development
– Suggests humans have two long-standing biologically based drives: survival and reproduction
– Proposes concept of selective adaptation
– Suggests genetic variations are particularly beneficial when the environment changes and benefits humanity as a whole
77
What is selective adaptation?
Process by which genes that enhance survival and reproductive ability are selected and, over generations, become more frequent.
78
What do Psychoanalytic theories contribute?
have made us aware of the impact of early-childhood experiences, remembered or not, on subsequent development.
79
What does behaviourism contribute?
has shown the effect that immediate responses, associations, and examples have on learning, moment by moment and over time.
80
What do cognitive theories contribute?
have brought an understanding of intellectual processes and how our thoughts and beliefs affect every aspect of our development.
81
What do sociocultural theories contribute?
have reminded us that development is embedded in a rich and multifaceted cultural context, evident in every social interaction.
82
What do evolutionary theories contribute?
Evolutionary theories suggest that human impulses need to be recognized before they can be guided.
83
What are the 5 perspectives of human development?
```
Psychoanalytic theory
Behaviourism
Cognitive Theory
Sociocultural Theory
Universal Perspective
```
84
What is Eclectic perspective?
– Occurs when aspects of each of the various theories of development are selectively applied rather than adhering exclusively to one theory
85
What does Eclectic perspective help with?
– Helps guard against bias and facilitates open- mindedness to alternative explanations for complexity of human life
86
Psychoanalytic theory, learning theory, and cognitive theory all belong to the category of:
A) emergent theories.
B) mini-theories.
C) grand theories.
D) epigenetic systems.
C) grand theories.
87
A ____________ is an average or usual event or experience
a) Norm
b) Theory
c) Hypothesis
d) Media
a) Norm
88
Behaviorists believe that psychologists should focus on __________.
a) Inner drive and behaviors
b) Observable behavior
c) A person's ideas and belief
d) A person's sexual conflict
b) Observable behavior
89
A key component of operant conditioning is:
a) A neutral stimulus
b) Reinforcement
c) Modeling
d) Copied behaviors
b) Reinforcement
90
Sociocultural theory suggests that:
a) Society and culture are simple external variables impinging on the developing person
b) Parents the world over pick up a crying baby
c) People shape and are shaped by their culture
d) All of the above
c) People shape and are shaped by their culture
91
___________ emphasized unconscious drives and early experiences with respect to development, whereas _________ emphasized learning by understanding how a person thinks.
a) Psychoanalytical theory; behaviorism
b) Psychoanalytical theory; cognitive theory
c) Behaviorism; psychoanalytical theory
d) Cognitive theory; psychoanalytical theory
b) Psychoanalytical theory; cognitive theory
92
A balloon popped and made Bobby cry. It happened again when he was at a friend's birthday party. Now when Bobby sees a balloon he starts to cry. Bobby cries in response to the balloon because of _____.
a) Operant conditioning
b) Observational learning
c) Classical conditioning
d) Modeling
c) Classical conditioning
93
Your friend advised you that your child's grocery store temper tantrums continue to occur because you are reinforcing the behavior. What theory has influenced your friend's thinking?
a) Psychoanalytic
b) Behaviorism
c) Socioculture
d) Epigenetic
b) Behaviorism
94
You want to teach your child to build a tower with blocks. Which theorist would suggest that you do this through guided participation?
a) Freud
b) Skinner
c) Piaget
d) Vygotsky
d) Vygotsky
95
Because you keep your room so impeccably neat, your friend says "You might be fixated at the anal stage!" Whose developmental theory has influenced your friends belief?
a) Freud's
b) Skinner's
c) Piaget's
d) Vygotsky's
a) Freud's
96
When a new experience does not fit current understanding, a person tends to experience a confusing state called:
A) cognitive disequilibrium.
B) accommodation.
C) adaptation.
D) assimilation
A) cognitive disequilibrium.
97
In Class, Sam learned that some theorists link happiness to productivity. From this, he developed the idea that happy employees in a factory will produce more products per hour. in this example, Sam's theory led him to _____
A) produce a hypothesis
B) generate a discovery
C) solve a developmental problem
D) gain practical guidance
A) produce a hypothesis
98
In the first half of the twentieth century, which two opposing theories dominated the discipline of psychology?
A) humanism and cognitive theory
B) psychoanalytic theory and behaviorism
C) behaviorism and sociocultural theory
D) cognitive theory and sociocultural theory
B) psychoanalytic theory and behaviorism
99
Which is the correct order of the stages of Freud's psychosexual theory, beginning with infancy and ending with adolescence?
A) oral, anal, genital, phallic, latency
B) oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital
C) anal, oral, phallic, genital, latency
D) latency, phallic, oral, anal, genital
B) oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital
100
Which psychoanalytic theorist identified unique stages of development from birth through late adulthood?
A) Freud
B) Skinner
C) Piaget
D) Erikson
D) Erikson
101
The process by which a response becomes linked to a particular stimulus is called "_____."
A) psychoanalysis
B) Skinobservational learning
C) cognition
D) conditioning
D) conditioning
102
The boss praises his hourly employee for their good work. The boss hopes that the praise encourages the employees to continue to work hard. In this example, the reinforcement is_____
A) worker productivity
B) the boss's praise
C) the boss
D) an hourly wage
B) the boss's praise
103
Observational learning is also called "_____."
A) classical conditioning
B) modeling
C) operant conditioning
D) cognition
B) modeling
104
With regard to cognitive development, Piaget argued that _____ is more revealing than _____.
A) what children know; how they think
B) the cultural context; what children know
C) how children think; what they know
D) what children know; their cultural context
C) how children think; what they know
105
According to Piaget, when new experiences are interpreted to fit into old ideas, it is called "_____."
A) learning
B) equilibrium
C) assimilation
D) accommodation
C) assimilation
106
Within the information-processing perspective, which is the correct sequential order for producing cognition?
A) the Brain produces an output; input is picked up by the five senses; the brain reacts, connects, and stores memories
B) the brain reacts, connects, and stores memories; input is picked up by the fives senses; the brain produces an output
C) input is picked up by the five senses; the brain reacts, connects, and stores memories; the brain produces an output
D) input is picked up by the five senses; the brain produces an output; the brain reacts, connects, and stores memories
C) input is picked up by the five senses; the brain reacts, connects, and stores memories; the brain produces an output
107
Dr. House is a neurologist who evaluates individuals who have experienced Brian injuries or have suspected Brain damage. Dr. house often has his patients undergo testing that allows measurement of myelin neurons, and fluid in the brain. Dr. House utilises _____ with his patients.
A) PET
B) MRI
C) ERP
D) EEG
B) MRI
108
The _____ measures electrical activity in the cortex.
A) MRI
B) ERP
C) EEG
D) fMRI
C) EEG
109
The idea that human development results from the dynamic interaction between developing persons and their surrounding society is the central thesis of ____ theory
A) information-processing
B) evolutionary
C) sociocultural
D) cognitive
C) sociocultural
110
in order to understand the emotions, impulses, and habits of humans over the life span, it is important to understand how those same emotions, impulses, and habits develop within homo sapiens over the past 100,000 years. this concept is consistent with _____ theory
A) psychoanalytic
B) information-processing
C) sociocultural
D) evolutionary
D) evolutionary
111
The process by which living creatures (including people) adjust to their environment is referred to as "_____."
A) reinforcement
B) selective adaptation
C) conditioning
D) cognitive equilibrium
B) selective adaptation
112
_____ theories have made us aware of the impact of early-childhood experiences, remembered or not, on development.
A) psychoanalytic
B) sociocultural
C) cognitive
D) eclectic
A) psychoanalytic
113
Which theory of development emphasized unconscious drives and early experiences, and which emphasized understanding how a person thinks?
A) Cognitive theory emphasized unconscious drives and early experiences, whereas psychoanalytic theory emphasized understanding how a person thinks.
B) Behaviorism emphasized unconscious drives and early experiences, whereas psychoanalytic theory emphasized understanding how a person thinks.
C) Psychoanalytic theory emphasized unconscious drives and early experiences, whereas behaviorism emphasized understanding how a person thinks.
D) Psychoanalytic theory emphasized unconscious drives and early experiences, whereas cognitive theory emphasized understanding how a person thinks.
D) Psychoanalytic theory emphasized unconscious drives and early experiences, whereas cognitive theory emphasized understanding how a person thinks.
114
Learning as defined in behaviorism is _____ the general definition of learning.
a. more comprehensive than
b. the same as
c. the opposite of
d. more narrow than
a. more comprehensive than
115
For centuries, men have needed women to be sexually faithful to ensure that her children are also his offspring. Which theory is consistent with this explanation for faithfulness among romantic partners?
a. behaviorism
b. sociocultural theory
c. evolutionary theory
d. humanism
c. evolutionary theory
116
Sally is helping her mom make a cake. Her mom helps Sally pick out the right ingredients, measure them, and mix them together. According to Vygotsky, Sally is engaging in:
a. operant conditioning
b. guided participation
c. her zone of proximal development
d. selective adaptation
c. her zone of proximal development
117
Approaches to toilet training have changed over time. At one point it was suggested that parents toilet-train whenever they wished, using reinforcement as part of the training. This view is consistent with:
a. information processing theory
b. psychoanalytic theory
c. behaviorism
d. cognitive theory
c. behaviorism
118
Within Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, each of the development stages is characterized by a particular challenge or:
a. developmental conflict
b. conflict negotiation
c. crisis opposition
d. developmental crisis
d. developmental crisis
119
The approach to cognitive development that focuses on the processes of thought instead of stages is called:
a. learning theory
b. information processing theory
c. cognitive cultural theory
d. accommodation theory
b. information processing theory
120
Which psychoanalytic theorist identified unique stages of development from birth through late adulthood?
a. Piaget
b. Erikson
c. Skinner
d. Freud
b. Erikson
121
One of the reasons that school age children tend to enjoy working on worksheets, or making collections of objects, or practicing their hobby is becasue they are in which of Erikson's stages:
a. autonomy vs shame
b. initiative vs. guilt
c. trust vs. mistrust
d. industry vs inferiority
d. industry vs inferiority
122
Theorists who promote classical conditioning differ from theorists who promote operant conditioning in their beliefs about the source of learned behavior. Which of these statements is true:
a. Classical conditioning theorists emphasize observing another person's actions, whereas operant conditioning theorists emphasize past reinforcement.
b. Classical conditioning theorists emphasize the association between one stimulus and another, whereas operant conditioning theorists emphasize past reinforcement.
c. Classical conditioning theorists emphasize the association between one stimulus and another, whereas operant conditioning theorists emphasize observing another person's actions.
d. Classical conditioning theorists emphasize past reinforcement, whereas operant conditioning theorists emphasize the association between one stimulus and another.
b. Classical conditioning theorists emphasize the association between one stimulus and another, whereas operant conditioning theorists emphasize past reinforcement.
123
The process by which a response becomes linked to a particular consequence is called:
a. cognition
b. psychoanalysis
c. operant conditioning
d. observational learning
c. operant conditioning
124
_____ has/have shown the effect that immediate response, associations, and examples have on learning, moment by moment and over time.
a. Sociocultural Theories
b. Psychoanalytic theories
c. Behaviorism
d. Cognitive theories
c. Behaviorism
125
A state of mental balance in which people are not confused because they can use their existing thought processes to understand current experience and ideas is called:
a. conflict resolution
b. cognitive equilibrium
c. social learning
d. information processing
b. cognitive equilibrium
126
Vygotsky used the term _______ to describe the method used by parents, teachers, and entire societies to teach novices the skills and habits expected within their culture:
a. zone of proximal development
b. selective adaptation
c. apprenticeship in thinking
d. guided participation
d. guided participation
127
Any consequence that follows a behavior and makes the person more likely to repeat that behavior is called a(n):
a. observation
b. punishment
c. condition
d. reinforcement
d. reinforcement
128
Sally has a dog at home, so she knows about dogs. She is walking down the street and see's an animal walking toward her. The animal has four legs, fur, a tail, and is barking. Sally knows that these are characteristics of a dog, given her knowledge of dogs. She quickly concludes that this animal is a dog. This example illustrates the Piagetian concept of :
a. operations
b. assimilation
c. equilibrium
d. accommodation
d. accommodation
129
The foundation of psychoanalytic theory is:
a. a person's ideas and beliefs
b. observations that individuals make about their environments
c. observable behaviors
d. inner drives, deep motives, and unconscious needs
d. inner drives, deep motives, and unconscious needs
130
Most behavior analysts define psychological development as...
A. progressive changes in interactions between parents, their children, and their environments
B. successive changes in interactions between one or more individuals and the events that happen in their communities
C. progressive changes in interactions between the behavior of individuals and the events in their environment
D. progressive changes in interactions between the behavior of a community and the events in their environment
C. progressive changes in interactions between the behavior of individuals and the events in their environment
131
The theories that have brought an understanding of intellectual processes and how our thoughts and beliefs affect every aspect of our development are _____ theories.
A. sociocultural
B. universal
C. cognitive
D. psychoanalytic
C. cognitive
132
Skinner believed that psychology should focus on the study of behavior. The type of conditioning that Skinner identified was _____.
A. observational conditioning
B. cognitive conditioning
C. classical conditioning
D. operant conditioning
D. operant conditioning
133
With respect to Piaget's theory of cognitive development, _____ is when new experiences are reinterpreted to fit into old ideas.
Assimilation
134
Each stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of development is characterized by a conflict associated with different parts of the body. According to Freud, how people experience and resolve each conflict influences personality _____.
A. throughout life because early years provide the foundation of adult behavior
B. throughout life only if some of the conflicts are successfully resolved
C. at a particular stage of development
D. only in childhood, with new conflicts emerging later that shape adult identity
D. only in childhood, with new conflicts emerging later that shape adult identity
135
The process by which living creatures (including people) adjust to their environment is referred to as _____.
A. conditioning
B. reinforcement
C. cognitive equilibrium
D. selective adaptation
D. selective adaptation
136
Which psychoanalytic theorist identified unique stages of development from birth through late adulthood?
A. Erikson
B. Freud
C. Piaget
D. Skinner
A. Erikson
137
In classical conditioning, a meaningful stimulus becomes linked to a neutral stimulus.
True/False?
True
138
According to evolutionary theory, people _____.
A. learn from the environment
B. have the same basic needs or motivations
C. learn from observations
D. are driven to survive and reproduce
D. are driven to survive and reproduce
139
Which cognitive theorist emphasized the cultural context?
A. Maslow
B. Piaget
C. Erikson
D. Vygotsky
D. Vygotsky
140
According to Piaget, when old ideas are restructured to include new experiences it is called _____.
A. assimilation
B. learning
C. equilibrium
D. accommodation
D. accommodation
141
Theories can do all of the following EXCEPT _____.
A. produce hypotheses
B. generate discoveries
C. solve developmental problems
D. offer practical guidance
C. solve developmental problems
142
According to Freud, the first stage of psychosexual development during infancy is the anal stage.
True/False?
False
143
Maslow's hierarchy includes _____ levels of needs.
A. 5
B. 3
C. 4
D. 6
A. 5
144
In class, Sam learned that some theorists link happiness to productivity. From this, he developed the thought that happy employees in a factory will produce more products per hour. In this example, Sam's theory led him to _____.
A. generate a discovery
B. gain practical guidance
C. produce a hypothesis
D. solve a developmental problem
C. produce a hypothesis
145
Approaches to toilet training have changed over time. At one point, it was suggested to parents to postpone toilet training until the child was at least a year old to avoid serious personality problems later on. This view is most consistent with _____.
A. behaviorism
B. cognitive theory
C. information-processing theory
D. psychoanalytic theory
A. behaviorism
146
A theory that stresses the potential of all humans for good and the belief that all people have the same basic needs, regardless of culture, gender, or background, is _____.
A. humanism
B. sociocultural theory
C. evolutionary theory
D. behaviorism
A. humanism
147
A balloon popped and made Bobby cry. It happened again when he was at a friend's birthday party. Now when Bobby sees a balloon he starts to cry. Bobby cries in response to the balloon because of _____.
A. operant conditioning
B. observational learning
C. classical conditioning
D. modeling
C. classical conditioning
148
Jason learned that emotions impact performance. From this, he developed the idea that students who are sad when they take a test will perform poorly compared to those who take it while happy. In this example, Jason used a theory to produce a _____.
hypothesis
149
The approach taken by most developmentalists, in which they apply aspects of each of the various theories of development rather than adhering exclusively to one theory, is referred to as the _____ perspective.
A. multidisciplinary
B. eclectic
C. multicontextual
D. self-selected
B. eclectic
150
According to Schlinger (1995), if we are interested in how and why behavior occurs, then we need to concentrate on __________.
A. its function
B. the period in time in which certain behaviors develop
C. its structural and functional properties
D. its historical importance to the individual and the individual's community
B. the period in time in which certain behaviors develop
151
```
What developmental period does a human go through from approximately 6 -11?
A. prenatal
B. early childhood
C. middle childhood
D. adolescence
```
C. middle childhood
152
```
We can separate developmental models into either
A. staged or unstaged.
B. cognitive or neurological.
C. continuous or discontinuous.
D. psychosexual or psychosocial.
```
C. continuous or discontinuous.
153
```
Freud's phallic stage can be viewed as relating to which of Erikson's stages?
A. basic trust vs. mistrust
B. autonomy vs. shame and doubt
C. initiative vs. guilt
D. intimacy vs. isolation
```
C. initiative vs. guilt
154
```
Which conflict does Erikson suggest those in middle childhood are trying are trying to resolve?
A. initiative vs. guilt
B. industry vs. inferiority
C. intimacy vs. isolation
D. autonomy vs. shame and doubt
```
B. industry vs. inferiority
155
```
What is the alternative to the conflict of 'generativity'?
A. industry
B. inferiority
C. stagnation
D. despair
```
C. stagnation
156
Which of the following is a commonly cited limitation of Piaget's developmental theory?
A. He offered no research data to support his theory.
B. The popularity of his theory constricted and limited the range of research from other
theoretical perspectives.
C. He overestimated the importance of age differences in children's ways of thinking.
D. He wrongly suggested that children actively promote their own mental development.
C. He overestimated the importance of age differences in children's ways of thinking.
