Chapter 2: Sociological Theory Flashcards
something everyone does all the time
theory
using knowledge to act in the world then using practical experience to upgrade knowledge
praxis
endless feedback loop between acting and theorizing
praxis
sociologists pose which type of questions
research questions
research questions are questions that can be answered through collecting and interpreting
empirical evidence
how does sociological theory and social theory differ
sociological theory is developed by and for the activity of sociological research
sociologists turn to _____ to help formulate questions
theory
activity of using concepts to organize the complexity of our experience into simple patterns
theory
we do this to understand our lives, to communicate, and make decisions on how to act
theory
any idea that represents some group of phenomena
concept
when we are born we have no ______ and don’t perceive _______
- concepts
- discrete phenomena or objects
first concept most of us learn is the
distinction between ourselves and the rest of the world
an important task that concepts perform is that they establish
boundaries
which things are x and which things are not x
boundaries
questions or statements about how concepts should be defined
conceptual questions
“are there more than just 2 sexes” is an example of what type of question
conceptual question
any thing, process, relationship, or quality that we can experience
phenomenon
a phenomenon we act towards in some way
object
the object of sociological inquiry is
social relations
any interaction or relationship between 2 or more individuals
social relations
many sociologists assume that __________ have some emergency properties
social phenomena
qualities or behaviours in an object that are not found in its constituent parts
emergency properties
sociological theorists propose at least some emergence of _______ that motivates social action
subjective meanings
the meaning a person attaches in their own mind, to an action or experience of theirs
subjective meaning
humans act on the basis of _______ that our actions and the actions of others have for us
meaning
the view that all social phenomena should be explained in terms of individual social actions and the subjective meanings that motivate those actions
methodological individualism
the view that the actions of all members of society combine to form a system
holism
the study of being
ontology
different types of emergent properties in a theory determine
ontology
ontologies is one half ______ and the other _________
metatheory
epistemology
sociological theories have different
ontologies
by saying sociological theories have different ontologies, we are saying that different kinds of ________ within the terms of theory
objects do or don’t exist
what counts as valid or true knowledge
epistomology
sees social reality as comprising objective facts and views and the research is value-free
positivism
seeks an objective scientific understanding of the social world, and seek universal laws
epistomology
3 positivist processes
empiricism
objectivity
fact-value distinction
the view that all valid knowledge must be based on empirical observations
empiricism
knowledge that any rational, informed, and honest observer will agree is valid
objectivity
the claim that moral or ethical values are subjective and cant be proven factually true or false
fact-value distinction
neglects the ways in which life is subjectively meaningful
positivism
seeks intersubjectively shared meaning
interpretivism
seeks to enable all humans to understand each other’s experiences, perceptions, and motivations
interpretivism
3 interpretivism processes
hermeneutics
subjectivity
intersubjective validity
the theory and methodology of the interpretation of subjective meanings
hermeneutics
to understand the subjective experiences of others, we need to experience them ourselves
subjectivity
validity based on mutually shared and accepted subjective meanings
intersubjective validity
seeks the transformation of social relations toward greater human freedom and equality
critical theories
3 critical theory processes
perspectivism
universalism
praxis
that there more than 1 plausible conceptual schemes for making sense of the world
perspectivism
that perception, experience, and reason, change according to the viewer’s relative perspective and interpretation
perspectivism
combines the goal of constructing knowledge valid for all humans while changing society to achieve social justice for all humans
universalism
a broad viewpoint, or perspective that permit social scientists to have a wide range of tools to describe society
paradigm
- the study of being
2. the study of knowledge
ontology
epistomology
society is a ______, _________ system of __________ parts
- bounded
- integrated
- functionally interdependent
Herbert Spencer and Emilie Durkheim are
pro-functionalists
results from the specialization of work, or division of labour
functional interdependence
started with the work of Talcott Parsons and Robert Merton
Functionalism
Parsons theorized that human action is organized into 3 action systems:
personality
cultural
social
functionalism assumes a
holistic ontology
the 3 actors innovate to (2)
reduce strain
become integrated
explains social order as being the product of conflict among social actors
analytic conflict theory
draws from the work of Max Weber
analytic conflict theory
the social world is made up of individuals, their actions, and their subjective meanings that inform action
methodological individualism
aims to describe power struggles without taking sides or making ethical judgement
classic analytic conflict theory
the self is a social structure
symbolic interactionism
a formation of social practices organized into a relatively stable pattern
social structure
anything that can stand for or represent something else
symbol
symbol interactionism leans towards ____________ and can be positivist or ___________
- methodological individualism
- interpretivist
are a type of emergent social phenomena
symbols
they look at what kinds of social practices make us feel that certain objects are real and others not
phenomenologists
2 main approaches within phenomenology:
- social constructionism
- ethnomethodology
analyzes the process by which the objective facts of social life acquire their objectivity
social constructionism
when a way of acting becomes established and has consequences, becoming a part of the external reality that individuals encounter in their lives
externalization
discharging untreated toxic waste into a river where ppl wash and fish is an example of
externalization
where ppl come to experience particular ways of acting as having their own reality separate from any individual actor
objectivation
acceptance of a set of norms or values through socialization
internalization
looks at everyday practices through which the social construction of reality is maintained and sometimes challenged
ethnomethodology
Ethnomethodologists pay special attention to
background expectancies
the taken-for-granted assumptions we make about how the world works
background expectancies
is a theory of the middle range (combines interpretive and structural analysis)
phenemonology
helps us to adapt to changing realities and to accept that more than 1 reality can exist within society
phenomenelogy
originate from social struggles in civil society
critical theories
there are as many ________ as there are issues that ppl struggle over
critical theories
7 examples of critical paradigms
Marxism, feminism, queer theory, crip theory, postcolonial theory, anti-racism, Indigenism
the ways the dominant group produces a worldview that makes its dominance seem natural or normal
cultural hegemony
shows how taken-for-granted ideas about social reality are produced by, and serve the interest of dominant groups
counter-hegemony
draws on the struggle for the social inclusion of persons with disabilities
crip theory
is unnecessary, pernicious, and can be abolished through collective action
social subordination of women
3 types of feminisms
liberal, radical, socialist
refers to how multiple forms of inequality (gender, race, class) overlap to produce different experiences
matrix of oppression
enables ppl with different experiences of oppression to understand each other and work for social change
intersectional analysis
proposes that the foundation of every society are material social relations through which ppl produce the means of their existence
Marxism
in Marxism, class is defined through the relationship to the
means of production
the physical, intellectual, and social resources that a society uses to produce wealth
means of production
small class where they own the means of production (factories, raw materials)
capitalist class
most ppl have to sell their _______ in exchange for wage
labour power
ppl that sell their labour power are in this class
the proletariat (working class)
this class exploit workers by paying them less than the value they produce
bourgeoisie
Marxism tends towards
holism (structural analysis)
the structure of capitalist society produces
alienation
separation of workers from ownership of commodities they produce, separation of control, intrinsic motivations and from other humans
alienation
proposes that everything in society is part of a single emergent system (capitalisms)
Marxism
examines how the production of knowledge is intertwined with the exercise of power in ways that shape individual human subjectivity
postsructuralism
poststructuralism investigates the production of _______ through _______ relations
discourse
power-knowledge
aims to produce social change by questioning taken-for-granted realities (ex: prison abolition, crip theory)
poststructuralism
these 2 things have kept indigenous ppl out of academic sociology
- racial discriminations
- economic barriers
Canada needs to recognize Indigenous ppls as nations and recognize their right to
self-determination
ability to decide their own conditions or life and pursue their own futures
self-determination
sociology tends to be _______, as it is shaped by its institutional bases in universities in Europe
Eurocentric
process of treating European worldviews as if they are universal
Eurocentrism
3 aspects of European worldviews that are falsely treated as universal
- society-individual duality
- society-nature duality
- modern-primitive duality
assumption that society and individuals are separate things that exist apart from one another
society-individual duality
assumption that society and nature constitute 2 different orders of reality distinct from one another
society-nature duality
assumption that human cultures evolve in linear direction, so that primitive cultures are less developed versions of more advanced/ modern cultures
modern-primitive duality
today, modern-primitive duality is perpetuated through
silencing Indigenous thoughts
