Chapter 2 – Functional Anatomy and Training Instruction Flashcards
1
Q
Homeostasis
A
The body’s tendency to seek a constant, desirable range of conditions that maintain equilibrium within all physiological systems.
2
Q
Bone mineral density
A
The mineral content in a given volume of bone, used as a measure of bone health as well as to diagnose diseases, such as osteoporosis.
3
Q
Osteopenia
A
A pre-disease condition, which indicates bone mineral density is lower than normal for a given individual’s age and sex, but is not yet low enough to be classified as osteoporosis.
4
Q
Osteoporosis
A
A bone disease in which a decrease in mineral density causes skeletal structures to become brittle and fragile, often leading to fractures and disability.
5
Q
Osteoblast function
A
synthesizing bone
6
Q
Osteocyte function
A
bone cells synthesized from osteoblasts
7
Q
Osteoclast function
A
breaks down bone tissues for remodeling
8
Q
Epiphyseal plates
A
The transverse cartilage plates, located near the end of long bones and responsible for increases in vertical growth during childhood and
adolescence.
9
Q
Bone mass
A
This represents the surface area of bone and total tissue volume.
10
Q
Weight-bearing physical activity
A
Activities where the skeleton must bear the weight of the body while performing the movement; these activity types are favored for improvements in bone mass, strength, and resilience.
11
Q
Joint
A
A point of articulation between two or more bones that allows for a functional connection and various amounts of motion, depending on local anatomical features.
12
Q
Synovial joint
A
A type of joint that uses synovial fluid to reduce frictional stresses and allow for considerable movement between the associated articulating bones.
13
Q
Hyaline cartilage
A
Tough yet elastic connective tissue found in various parts/joints of the body which allows for minimal movement, depending on the surrounding anatomy.
14
Q
Fibrocartilage
A
Tough connective tissue composed of a dense matrix of fibers serving as a shock absorber for structures exposed to high forces.
15
Q
Joint capsule
A
A connective tissue enclosure that surrounds specific joints and consists of an outer fibrous membrane and an inner synovial membrane, assisting in joint protection and stability.
16
Q
Periosteum
A
A dense fibrous membrane covering the surface of bones that serves as an attachment site for tendons to connect muscle to bone.
17
Q
Synovial membrane
A
A special membrane that lines synovial joints and secretes synovial fluid to lubricate the articulating surfaces.
18
Q
Bursa
A
A small fluid-filled sac that reduces friction between connective and bony tissues during movement.
19
Q
Ligaments
A
Tough fibrous bands of connective tissue that support internal organs and attach adjacent bones at articulation sites; due to limited blood supply, self repair is difficult following an injury.
20
Q
Tendons
A
Tough fibrous bands of connective tissue that connect muscles to bones; tendons positively adapt to flexibility and resistance-based exercise.
21
Q
Plane Joint
A
A plane joint allows bones to slide past each other. Midcarpal and midtarsal joints are plane joints.
22
Q
Pivot Joint
A
A pivot joint allows rotation around an axis. Pivot joints are found in the neck and forearm.
23
Q
Hinge Joint
A
A hinge joint allows extension and retraction of an appendage. Hinge joints are found in the knees, elbows, fingers, and toes.
24
Q
Condyloid Joint
A
A condyloid joint is similar to ball and socket but with less movement. The wrist is a condyloid joint.
25
Saddle Joint
A saddle joint allows movement back and forth and up and down. The only saddle joint in the human body is the thumb.
26
Ball-and-socket Joint
A ball and socket joint allows for radical movement in almost any direction. Ball-and-socket joints are found in the shoulders and hips.
27
Proprioceptors
Special sensory receptors found in joints and connective tissues that send signals concerning body position and movement to motor neurons in the spinal cord, thereby effectively managing muscle and tendon tension.
28
Hypermobility
Also known as “joint laxity”, this term indicates joint movement capabilities which surpass a normal, healthy range; addressing hypermobility usually requires an emphasis on strength and stability, while avoiding flexibility activities to reduce the risk for injury.
29
Golgi tendon organs
Special kinesthetic receptors located near muscle-tendon junctions which send reflexive signals to the spinal cord
to regulate muscle tension; they function to protect tissue from overstraining and injury using autogenic inhibition.
30
Skeletal muscle
A type of striated muscle which attaches to the skeleton to facilitate movements by applying force to bones and joints via contractions.
31
Cardiac muscle
A type of involuntary, mononucleated, striated muscle found exclusively within the heart.
32
Smooth muscle
A type of involuntary, non-striated muscle found within the walls of organs and vascular structures.
33
Fascia
The most superficial layer of muscle composed of a fibrous connective tissue that encapsulates the underlying layers to form individual muscles.
34
Epimysium
A dense collection of collagen fibers that covers the entire surface of muscle.
35
Perimysium
A layer of tissue below the epimysium That encompasses bundles of fibers.
36
Fascicle
A bundle of wrapped muscle fibers.
37
Endomysium
A thin sheath of connective tissue that covers each separate muscle fiber within a fascicle.
38
Sarcolemma
The external lamina of each single muscle fiber.
39
Sarcoplasm
The cytoplasm within each single muscle fiber.
40
Mitochondria
An organelle responsible for significant energy production and metabolic processes within each cell.
41
Myofibrils
The sectional units found within each muscle fiber which contain bundles of myofilaments.
42
Myofilaments
The long, cylinder-like protein elements in muscle tissue which operationally set the action of contraction into motion.
43
Sarcoplasm
The cytoplasm within each single muscle fiber.
44
Actin
The thin myofilament within sarcomeres used to create tension inside muscle cells.
45
Myosin
The thick myofilament within sarcomeres used to create tension inside muscle cells.
46
Central nervous system
The central processing unit for the nervous system, consisting of the brain and spinal cord.
47
Action potential
A wave-like change in the electrical properties of a cell membrane that functions as a signal to promote a cascade of events including muscular contraction.
48
Peripheral nervous system
The portion of the nervous system outside of the brain and spinal cord.
49
Capillaries
The tiny vascular structures that connect arteries and veins.
50
Sliding filament theory
This explains the molecular mechanisms surrounding the multi-step interaction between actin (thin myofilament) and myosin (thick myofilaments) during a muscular contraction.
51
Motor neuron
A nerve cell within the peripheral nervous system that propagates electrical impulses to working musculature to regulate contractions and bodily movement.
52
Motor unit
A motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers it innervates.
53
Neuromuscular junction
This is also known as the motor end plate: a junction where a motor neuron and muscle cells interact via chemo-electrical impulses to facilitate the stimulation of muscle cell contraction.
54
Excitation-contraction coupling
This describes the process in which an action potential propagates across the sarcolemma triggering release of calcium by the sarcoplasmic reticulum to initiate a muscular contraction.
55
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
The tubular network that surrounds each individual muscle fiber and acts as a storage site for calcium to play its part in facilitating contractions.
56
Sarcomere
The repeating functional units of a muscle fiber, consisting of contractile myofilaments; sarcomeres are the muscle components which shorten and re-lengthen during contractions.
57
Troponin-tropomyosin complex
A connection site within separate muscle fibers which allows for the myosin heads to attach to actin and form a cross-bridge for muscular contraction.
58
Adenosine triphosphate
The primary energy source created within the mitochondria of muscle cells via various metabolic processes. ATP facilitates performance of mechanical work.
59
Cross bridges
These consist of a myosin head that projects from the surface of the thick myofilament and binds to the surface of the thin myofilament (actin) in the presence of calcium ions.
60
Twitch
A single contraction-relaxation cycle within skeletal muscle fibers.
61
Summation
A neuromuscular response that does not allow the muscle to relax between twitches; sequential summation
responses lead to complete tetanus.
62
Complete tetanus
This indicates the achievement of a sustained muscular contraction due to a rate of repeated stimulation (twitches), which prevents relaxation.
63
Muscle tone
Always present to some degree in skeletal muscle, as motor units are active even when the muscle is not voluntarily contracted
64
Muscle spindles
A specialized type of proprioceptor in muscle fibers which aids in managing tension via the detection of tissue length and movement velocity, sending information to the nervous system in response to muscle stretching.
65
Agonist
The muscle that contracts and
| shortens during a given movement/exercise to resist/accelerate the load.
66
Antagonist
The muscle that relaxes and lengthens during a given movement/exercise to allow full contraction of the working muscle.
67
Asynchronous motor unit firing
A neuromuscular adaptation presenting itself within type I muscle fibers in response to repeated bouts of prolonged activity which helps preserve
energy and prevent premature fatigue.
68
Synchronicity
The performance of multiple actions in unison, which often results in improved force production.
69
3 things that increase force production
Increased Firing Rate
Increased Recruitment
Improved Synchronicity
70
Isotonic contraction
Tension remains while joint angles change; this contraction is seen during most exercises/activities that include a concentric (acceleration) and eccentric (deceleration) component.
71
Isometric contraction
Tension is created but no changes in joint angles occur; it often occurs in stabilizers during movement to regulate body segment/joint positioning.
72
Isokinetic contraction
This signifies a constant speed of movement regardless of the muscular force applied.
73
Eccentric
A muscle contraction where the resistive force is greater than the force applied by the muscle so that it lengthens as it contracts.
74
Concentric
A muscle contraction where the working tissues apply enough force to overcome applied resistance so that the tissues shorten as they contract.
75
Type IIX fibers
The fast-twitch glycolytic fibers that possess the highest power output capabilities, largest fiber diameter, and lowest resistance to fatigue.
76
Type IIA fibers
The fast-twitch, oxidative-glycolytic fibers that possess intermediate power output capabilities, intermediate fiber
diameter, and a moderate resistance to fatigue; these fibers provide support during intense strength/power activities as well as prolonged work, making them the most versatile from a metabolic standpoint.
77
Type I fibers
The slow-twitch oxidative fibers that possess the lowest power output, smallest fiber diameter, and the highest resistance to fatigue.
78
Anaerobic
Metabolic processes of energy production that do not require the presence of oxygen.
79
Aerobic
Metabolic processes of energy production that require the presence of oxygen, also known as oxidative metabolism.
80
Myoglobin
The oxygen-transporting protein found in muscle that contains heme iron; myoglobin is structurally similar to the hemoglobin found in red blood cells in circulation.
81
Size principle
The idea that muscle fiber types are recruited sequentially based on their size and force output capacities.
82
Hypertrophy
An increase in muscle fiber size.
83
Sagittal plane
A plane of movement split by the midline which breaks the body into left and right halves.
84
Frontal plane
The plane of movement split by the midaxillary line which breaks the body into front and back halves.
85
Transverse Plane
The plane of movement which breaks the body into top and bottom halves.
86
Anatomical position
A reference posture used in anatomical description in which the subject stands erect with feet parallel and arms adducted and supinated, with palms facing forward.
87
Midline
The median plane of the
| body.
88
Anterior axillary line
Crease of the axilla.
89
Midaxillary line
A perpendicular line drawn downward from the apex of the axilla.
90
Anterior
Placed before or in front.
91
Posterior
Located behind a part or toward the rear of a structure.
92
Ventral
Placed before or in front.
93
Dorsal
Located behind a part or toward the rear of a structure.
94
Proximal
Situated nearest to point of attachment or origin.
95
Distal
Situated farthest from point of attachment or origin, as of a limb or bone.
96
Medial
At, in, near, or being the center; dividing a person into right and left halves.
97
Lateral
Situated or extending away from the medial plane of the body.
98
Ipsilateral
On, or relating to, the same side of the body.
99
Contralateral
On, or relating to, the opposite side of the body.
100
Superficial
Shallow proximity in relation to a surface.
101
Deep
Extending inward in relation to a surface layer.
102
Flexion
To bend; in hinge joints, the articulating bones move closer together; in ball-and-socket joints, the limb moves anterior to the midaxillary line.
103
Extension
To straighten or extend; in hinge joints the articulating bones move away from each other; in ball-and-socket joints, the limb moves posterior to the midaxillary line.
104
Lateral flexion
Spinal movement to the left or right, occurs at the neck and trunk.
105
Protraction
Movement of a structure toward the anterior surface in a straight horizontal line.
106
Retraction
Movement back to the anatomical position or additionally, posterior to functional range of motion.
107
Dorsiflexion
Movement of the ball of the foot towards the shin.
108
Plantar flexion
Foot movement towards the plantar surface.
109
Pronation
Unique rotation of the forearm which crosses the radius and ulna; the palm faces posterior.
110
Supination
Unique rotation of the forearm where the radius and ulna uncross; the palms face anteriorly.
111
Inversion
Confined to the ankle; consists of turning the ankle so the plantar surface of the foot faces medially.
112
Eversion
Confined to the ankle; consists of turning the ankle so the plantar surface of the foot faces laterally.
113
Abduction
Movement away from the midline.
114
Adduction
Movement toward the midline.
115
Hyperextension
Extension of a joint beyond a range that surpasses full extension; can be safe as seen at the shoulder during a row, or unsafe as seen at the spine during activities involving the lower back.
116
Ulnar deviation
Joint action at the wrist that causes the hand to move medially towards the little finger in the frontal plane.
117
Radial deviation
Joint action at the wrist that causes the hand to move laterally towards the thumb in the frontal plane.
118
External rotation
Action at the shoulder and hip joint where the articulating bone is rotated away from the body from anatomical position.
119
Internal rotation
Action at the shoulder and hip joint where the articulating bone is rotated towards the body from anatomical position.
120
Circumduction
Circular movement of an extremity at which the distal end allows 360° of movement while the proximal end remains fixed.
121
Elevation
Superior movement of a bone or tissues.
122
Depression
Inferior movement of a bone or tissues.
123
Horizontal abduction
Movement away from the midline in the transverse plane.
124
Horizontal adduction
Movement towards the midline in the transverse plane.
125
Rotation
The turning of a structure around its long axis.
126
Compound exercises
Exercises that involve more than one joint and multiple muscle groups.
127
Prime movers
The muscle required to perform the majority of mechanical work necessary to overcome the load during a given exercise.
128
Kyphotic
A convex curvature of the spine, as seen in the thoracic segment.
129
Lordotic
A concave curvature of the spine, as seen in the lumbar segment.
130
Neutral spine
A state of proper postural positioning for the spine that includes four major curvatures for shock absorption and efficient movement.
131
Lordosis
An exaggerated lordotic (anterior) curvature of the spine which can lead to postural issues and injury.
132
Kyphosis
Exaggerated kyphotic (posterior) curvature of the spine which can lead to postural issues and injury.
133
Lower cross syndrome
Refers to chronic lordosis in the lumbar region, demonstrated by an arched back with hip flexion.
134
Intervertebral disc
A fibrocartilaginous disc that serves as a cushion between the vertebra of the spinal column.
135
Nucleus-pulposus
A gelatinous, fluid-filled component found in the center of each intervertebral disc.
136
Anterior pelvic tilt
A forward rotational movement of the iliac crests of the pelvis, originating from the lumbosacral joint, which impacts the curvature of the spine.
137
Posterior pelvic tilt
A backward rotational movement of the iliac crests of the pelvis, originating from the lumbosacral joint, which impacts the curvature of the spine.
138
Rotator cuff
A set of various ligaments and four muscles including the supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, and subscapularis which function to counteract the relative lack of stability in the shoulder joint and regulate proper movement.
139
Shoulder girdle
A joint complex that includes the articulations between the sternum and clavicle and the clavicle and the scapula.
140
Tibial translation
This describes potentially harmful translational forces created by the tibia that are placed upon the patellar tendon and knee joint due to migration of the knees in front of the toes during lower-body movements, such as stepping and lunging.
