Chapter 2 Flashcards
1
Q
theories
A
- explain relationships between phenomena
- define concepts
2
Q
what do the 3 learning theories have in common?
A
explain how aspects of the ENVIRONMENT (nurture) influence the learning of behaviours and emotions
3
Q
3 learning theories
A
- Pavlov’s Classical conditioning
- Skinner’s Operant conditioning
- Bandura’s social-learning/social-cognitive
4
Q
UCS vs. UCR vs. CS vs. CR
A
- UCS: something that naturally triggers a response (unlearned) - ex. food
- UCR: an unlearned behaviour or emotion triggered by the UCS (unlearned) - ex. saliva
- CS: something that is presented either just before or at the same time as the UCS (learned) - ex. bell
- CR: learned behaviour or emotion triggered by pairing together the UCS and CS - ex. saliva
5
Q
operant conditioning
A
- how an individual’s behaviour can be intentionally modified, controlled, or managed by someone else
- focuses on the effects of consequences (response -> consequence -> frequency of future responses)
- ex. kid eats all veggies (response) -> get dessert (consequence) -> more motivated to eat veggies (future response)
- response is behaviour only
6
Q
classical conditioning
A
- how 2 stimuli paired together than produce a learned response
- ex. UCS + CS -> CR
- response can be a behaviour or an emotion
7
Q
operant conditioning/Skinner’s key concepts
A
- positive reinforcement
- negative reinforcement
- positive punishment
- negative punishment
8
Q
reinforcement
A
- consequence that causes a person’s future behaviour to be either increased or maintained
9
Q
positive reinforcement
A
add/give something pleasant (ie. give candy)
10
Q
negative reinforcement
A
take away something unpleasant (ie. take away chores)
11
Q
positive punishment
A
add/give something unpleasant (ie. give chores)
12
Q
negative punishment
A
take away something pleasant (ie. take away candy)
13
Q
punishment
A
consequence that causes a person’s future behaviour to decrease
14
Q
shaping
A
- when a behaviour that is increasingly closer to the desired behaviour is reinforced
- used for complex behaviours like potty training
- ex. tell mom you have to pee -> reward; then tell mom early enough that you can make it to bathroom -> reward; etc.
15
Q
social-learning theory/social-cognitive theory
A
- human behaviour is learned observationally through modelling
- 2 main concepts: observational learning and self-efficacy
16
Q
Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment
A
- kids in experimental group watched an adult/model beat up the bobo doll. Kids in control group had no model/observational learning
- then, when asked to play with the Bobo doll, experimental group showed more aggression (either copying the models or inventing new ways to be aggressive towards the doll) while the control group played nicely with it
17
Q
observational learning
A
- learning due to observing the behaviours of another
- requires a model (NOT reinforcements)
- learning can happen even if model isn’t trying to instill behaviour
18
Q
self-efficacy
A
- the beliefs we have about whether (and to what degree) we will be successful at something
- people with strong self-efficacy view problems as things to be mastered, are committed to their activities and interests, and recover quickly from disappointments
- people with weak self-efficacy avoid challenging tasks and believe they’re beyond their capabilities, focus on personal failures and quickly lose self-confidence
- task-specific: high self-efficacy in one thing (ie. English), low self-efficacy in another (ie. math)
19
Q
cognitive theories
A
- Piaget’s cognitive-development theory
- Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory
- information-processing theory
- Bandura (both learning and cognitive theorist)
20
Q
Piaget’s cognitive-development theory
A
- how humans logically reason from infancy to adolescence
- maturation/age sets parameters for what’s possible (which is untrue - there are other influences)
- humans sort acquired info into mental schemas
21
Q
schemas
A
- mind consists of infinite number of them
- guide how we perceive, interpret, and understand experiences
- info is either assimilated or accommodated into schemas
22
Q
assimilation
A
- incorporating info into an existing schema
- INFORMATION is being modified to fit pre-existing schemas
- easier method
23
Q
accomodation
A
- info makes us realize that our current schemas are inadequate, so we re-organize the schemas
- SCHEMA is being modified
- more effortful
- ex. Nathan’s clock scheme
24
Q
According to Piaget, what else (other than maturation) accounts for gains in cognitive development?
A
experiencing COGNITIVE CONFLICT (dialectic tension), which promotes accomodation
25
Vygotsky's social-cultural theory
cultural tools and interactions with more knowledgeable cultural members are responsible for cognitive development
26
cultural tools
- cultural tools (like toys, technology, art, games, teaching styles, etc.) can result in individuals demonstrating advanced cognitive growth in some areas (and less cognitive growth in others)
- account for cultural variation in cognitive development
27
zone of proximal development and scaffolding
- Vygotsky was interested in the difference between what individuals could accomplish on their own vs. what individuals could accomplish when assisted by more knowedgeable cultural members (scaffolding)
- difference between these 2 levels = zone of proximal development
28
information-processing theory
- best theory, most specific
| - hardware (memory components) and software (memory processes)
29
sensory memory
- aka: "register"
- registering information
- retains exact copy of what is seen and heard for a few seconds
- requires attention to process it to short-term memory
30
short-term memory
- aka "working memory"
- working on information
- limited in capacity - can only hold 7 items
- marker of intelligence
- requires encoding to process it to long-term memory
31
long-term memory
- storing info (in various degrees)
| - unlimited capacity for storing info
32
hardware
- information moves through 3 memory components; each one manages info differently and has different memory capacity
- sensory, short-term, long-term
33
software
- influence how efficiently and effectively we process and acquire info, problem-solve, complete tasks, and learn
- operational efficiency, attention, encoding, expertise, automaticity, executive control strategies
34
operational efficiency
- how fast we actively work on info in short-term memory
| - starts to decline at 35 years (usually for new things or things you don't practice)
35
attention
- ability to focus on info long enough to transfer it from sensory mem. to short-term mem.
- helps actively process info in short-term mem. before transferring it to long-term mem.
- 3 types of attention: sustained, selective, divided
36
sustained attention
how long you can focus on a particular task
37
selective attention
- ability to discard irrelevant info in sensory memory and process only relevant into short-term memory
- marker of intelligence
38
divided attention
impairs processing (ie. texting and driving at the same time)
39
encoding
- how we make sense of info prior to storing it in long-term mem.
- different levels of encoding (ie. superficially or deeply)
40
levels of encoding
- remembering: recall/rote memory
- understanding: giving an example or putting it into different words
- applying: how to use the info in the real world
- evaluating: critiquing its strengths, weaknesses, etc.
- must go through all these levels to learn
41
expertise
- each individual possesses unique knowledge and experiences -> varying levels of expertise
- domain-specific
- someone with more expertise has a more efficient system
- ex. resume is summary of expertise
42
automaticity
- ability to recall info from long-term mem. without using short-term mem. capacity (ie. short-term mem. still has 7 items left)
- ex. phonics, sight words, etc.
43
executive control strategies
- support effective processing of information
- not typically domain-specific - can be used in multiple tasks across multiple subject areas
- ex. rehearsal (holds info longer in STM), chunking and graphic organizers/templates/outlines/flowcharts (increases STM capacity)
