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Anatomy and Physiology > Chapter 13: The Brain > Flashcards

Chapter 13: The Brain Flashcards

1
Q

the typical brain has a volume of

A

1200 mL

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2
Q

the average male brain IS __ % larger than the female brain

A

10

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3
Q

the brain is visible by the __ week of development

A

4th

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4
Q

what are the four major brain regions?

A
  1. cerebrum
  2. cerebellum
  3. diencephalon
  4. brainstem
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5
Q

the left and right side of the brain are divided into

A

cerebral hemispheres

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6
Q

the left and right hemispheres are divided by

A

deep fissures

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7
Q

the surface of the cerebrum has folds called ___ and grooves called __. Function?

A

gyri; sulci; increase surface area

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8
Q

the cerebral cortex has a superficial layer of

A

gray matter

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9
Q

what are the 3 major functions of the cerebral cortex?

A
  1. conscious thought
  2. memory storage and processing
  3. sensory processing
  4. control of skeletal muscles
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10
Q

the cerebellum is partially hidden by the

A

cerebral hemispheres

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11
Q

what is the second largest brain structure?

A

cerebellum

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12
Q

the cerebellum makes up __% of the brain’s volume and houses __% of its neurons

A

10% and 50%

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13
Q

what is the main function of the cerebellum?

A

coordinate motor commands from the cerebral cortex

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14
Q

the dienchephalon is made of two parts:

A

the thalamus and the hypothalamus

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15
Q

role of the thalamus

A

sensory relay and processing

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16
Q

role of the hypothalamus

A

emotions, autonomic function, hormone production

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17
Q

the brainstem is made of three parts:

A

midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata

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18
Q

the midbrain controls nuclei that : (3)

A
  1. process visual / auditory information
  2. control reflexes triggered by them
  3. helps maintain consciousness
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19
Q

the pons connects the __ to the __

A

cerebellum; brainstem

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20
Q

function of the pons (2)

A
  1. tracts and relay centers

2. somatic and visceral motor control

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21
Q

function of medulla oblongata (2)

A
  1. relays sensory information through brainstem and to the thalamus
  2. regulates many autonomic functions
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22
Q

what are ventricles?

A

chambers formed during development

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23
Q

ventricles are filled with __ and lined with __

A

CSF; ependymal cells

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24
Q

lateral ventricles

A

one in each cerebral hemisphere

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25
Q

interventricular foramen

A

connect lateral ventricles to third ventricle

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26
Q

third ventricle

A

located in the dienchephalon

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27
Q

cerebral aqueduct

A

slender canal in midbrain that connects third to fourth ventricle

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28
Q

fourth ventricle

A

upper part of medulla oblongata that narrow to become the central canal of the spinal cord

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29
Q

corpus callosum

A

thick tract of white matter that interconnects the cerebral hemispheres

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30
Q

what 4 things protect the brain?

A
  1. cranial bones
  2. cerebrospinal fluid
  3. blood brain barrier
  4. cranial meninges
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31
Q

the cranial meninges are continuous with the __

A

spinal meninges

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32
Q

3 layers of cranial meninges?

A
  1. dura
  2. arachnoid mater
  3. pia matter
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33
Q

2 layers of dura mater

A
  1. periosteal layer(outer)

2. meningeal layer

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34
Q

arachnoid mater consists of (3)

A

arachnoid membrane, arachnoid trabeculae and subarachnoid space

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35
Q

which arachnoid mater is closest to the dura mater?

A

arachnoid membrane

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36
Q

arachnoid trabeculae

A

fibrous strands through subarachnoid space; connects to the pia mater

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37
Q

subarachnoid space

A

between arachnoid membrane and pia mater

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38
Q

pia mater is bound to the brain by __

A

astrocyte processes that extend into evry fold

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39
Q

astrocyte processes are accompanied by branches of __ as they penetrate the __ of the brain

A

cerebral blood vessels; surface

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40
Q

what are the 3 functions of the CSF?

A
  1. support weight of brain
  2. cushion brain / spinal cord from physical trauma
  3. transport nutrients, chemical messengers, wastes
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41
Q

CSF is produced and maintained by the

A

choroid plexus

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42
Q

what makes up the choroid plexus?

A

ependymal cells with tight junctions and capillaries

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43
Q

there is a choroid plexus in each __

A

ventricle

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44
Q

materials diffuse between CSF and __ of CNS

A

interstitial fluid

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45
Q

CSF circulates from __ through ___ to __

A

choroid plexus; ventricles; central canal of spinal cord

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46
Q

CSF is absorbed into venous circulation at

A

arachnoid granulations

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47
Q

what are arachnoid granulations?

A

fingerlike extensions of arachnoid membrane that penetrate meningeal layer of dura mater

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48
Q

all communication between brain and spinal cord travels in ascending and descending tracts through

A

medulla oblongata

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49
Q

the medulla oblongata coordinates __ and __

A

complex autonomic reflexes and visceral functions

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50
Q

the medulla oblongata contains __ centers for vital functions

A

autonomic

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51
Q

the medulla oblongata contains __ along sensory and motor pathways

A

relay stations

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52
Q

the medulla oblongata contains __ associated with 5 cranial nerves

A

nuclei

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53
Q

the medulla oblongata contains __ that contain tracts of motor fibers from cerebral cortex

A

pyramids

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54
Q

some pyramid fibers cross to opposite side of medulla, this is called

A

decussation

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55
Q

the pons links the cerebellum with the

A

midbrain, dienchephalon, cerebrum, medulla oblongata, spinal cord

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56
Q

what are the 4 groups of structures in the pons?

A
  1. ascending, descending, transverse tracts
  2. nuclei controlling respiration
  3. sensory and motor nuclei of cranial nerves
  4. nuclei/tracts that process/relay information sent to/from cerebellum
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57
Q

the reticular formation contains __ regulating __ and spans from __ to __

A

nuclei/centres; vital autonomic functions; medulla oblongata to midbrain

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58
Q

the cerebellum is the automatic ___

A

processing centre

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59
Q

the cerebellum monitors __ sensations (5)

A

proprioceptive, visual, tactile, balance, auditory

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60
Q

the cerebellum has 2 primary functions

A
  1. adjusting postural muscles by modifying activities of brainstem centers
  2. programming / fine-tuning movements controlled at conscious / subconscious levels
    - refines leraned movements
    - compares motor commands with proprioceptive information, makes adjustments as needed
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61
Q

what is the most complex / integrative part of the brainstem?

A

midbrain

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62
Q

the midbrain can direct complex motor patterns at __ level

A

subconscious

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63
Q

__ influences level of activity in entire nervous system

A

midbrain

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64
Q

what is the corpora quadrigemina?

A

two pairs of sensory nuclei

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65
Q

what are the two pairs of sensory nuclei in the corpora quadrigemina?

A
  1. superior colliculus

2. inferior colliculus

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66
Q

the superior colliculus receives __ input from medulla oblongata and pons

A

visual

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67
Q

the superior colliculus controls reflex movements of the __, __ and __ in response to __ stimuli

A

eyes, head and neck; visual

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68
Q

the inferior colliculus receives __ input from medulla oblongata and pons

A

auditory

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69
Q

the inferior colliculus controls reflex movements of __, __ and __ in response to __ stimulus

A

head, neck and trunk; auditory

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70
Q

reticular activating system (RAS) is a specialized part of the __

A

reticular formation

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71
Q

function of RAS

A

stimulation increases alertness and attentiveness

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72
Q

damage to the RAS causes

A

unconsciousness

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73
Q

the red nucleus receives information from the __ and __

A

cerebrum and cerebellum

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74
Q

the red nucleus sends __ motor commands for __ position and __

A

subconscious; upper limb; muscle tone

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75
Q

what are the 3 parts of the diencephalon?

A
  1. epithalamus
  2. thalamus
  3. hypothalamus
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76
Q

the epithalamus is contains the

A

pineal gland

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77
Q

the pineal gland is an __ structure and secretes __

A

endocrine; melatonin

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78
Q

the pineal gland is located in the

A

posterior epithalamus

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79
Q

melatonin regulates

A

day-night cycles and reproductive functions

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80
Q

the thalamus __ sensory information, Passing on __

A

filters; only a small portion

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81
Q

the final relay for ascending sensory information is projected to __ from thalamus

A

cerebral cortex

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82
Q

each thalamic region is connected to specific areas in the

A

cortex

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83
Q

the hypothalamus conatins important __ and __ centers

A

control and integrative

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84
Q

the hypothalamus may be stimulated by (3)

A
  1. sensory information from cerebrum, brainstem, spinal cord
  2. changes in composition of CSF and interstitial fluid
  3. chemicals in circulating blood (lacks blood brain barrier)
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85
Q

__ connects the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland

A

infundibulum

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86
Q

what is the limbic system?

A

functional grouping of tracts and nuclei along border of cerebrum and diencephalon

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87
Q

4 functions of the limbic system

A
  1. establishing emotional states
  2. linking conscious, intellectual functions of cerebral cortex with unconscious and autonomic functions of brainstem
  3. facilitating memory storage / retrieval
  4. affecting motivation
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88
Q

what are the diencephalon components of the limbic system?

A

thalamus and hypothalamus

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89
Q

what part of thalamus contributes to the limbic system?

A

anterior thalamic nuclei from mammillary body to cingulate gyrus

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90
Q

which part os the hypothalamus contributes to the limbic system?

A

hypothalamic nuclei, mammillary body

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91
Q

what is the role of the hypothalamus in the limbic system?

A

emotions ( rage, fear, pain, sexual arousal, pleasure) and produce general alertness / excitement / or lethargy / sleep via stimulation of reticular formation

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92
Q

what are the 2 nuclei cerebral components of the limbic system?

A
  1. amygdaloid body

2. hippocampus

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93
Q

___ is the interface between limbic system, sensory system, and cerebrum

A

amygdaloid body

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94
Q

___ plays a role in regulating heart rate , fight or flight, and linking emotions and memories

A

amygdaloid body

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95
Q

what is the role of the hippocampus in the limbic system?

A

learning, especially storage and retrieval of longterm memories

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96
Q

the basal nuclei of the cerebrum adjust and refine __

A

ongoing voluntary movements

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97
Q

basal nuclei of the cerebrum are masses of ___ within each cerebral hemisphere, deep to the ___

A

grey matter; floor of lateral ventricles

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98
Q

basal nuclei have __ control over skeletal muscle tone

A

subconscious

99
Q

basal nuclei of the cerebrum help coordinate __

A

learned movement patterns

100
Q

basal nuclei of cerebrum do not __ movements, but provide __

A

initiate; general pattern/rhythm

101
Q

basal nuclei can have __ control or __ modification of movement

A

direct / indirect

102
Q

direct control over movement by cerebral basal nuclei stimulates

A

motor nuclei in the brainstem

103
Q

example of direct control by basal nuclei

A

control of cycles of arm/thigh while walking

104
Q

indirect modification of movement by basal nuclei sends output to __ after synapsing in the __

A

cerebral cortex; thalamus

105
Q

example of indirect modification of meovemnt

A

subconsciously adjust muscle tone as you begin a voluntary movement

106
Q

what are the 5 lobes of the cerebrum?

A

frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, insula

107
Q

the central sulcus separates

A

frontal from parietal lobe

108
Q

the precentral gyrus contains __ and controls __

A

primary motor cortex; voluntary movements

109
Q

the postcentral gyrus contains __ and controls __

A

primary somatosensory cortex; conscious awareness of somatosensory information

110
Q

each hemisphere receives sensory information from and sends commands to ___ side of the body

A

opposite

111
Q

crossing over occurs in the __ and __

A

brainstem and spinal cord

112
Q

the boundaries of the cerebral hemispheres are well-defined (t/f)

A

false

113
Q

the cerebral cortex is divided into 6 functional categories:

A
  1. motor cortex
  2. sensory cortex
  3. visual cortex
  4. auditory cortex
  5. olfactory cortex
  6. gustatory cortex
114
Q

each sensory and motor region connected to nearby __

A

association area

115
Q

an association area is a region that

A

interprets incoming data or coordinates motor response

116
Q

the primary motor cortex directs __ movement by controlling motor neurons in the ___

A

volunatary; brainstem / spinal cord

117
Q

which cortex is responsible for coordinating learned movements?

A

premotor cortex

118
Q

the premotor cortex has which association area?

A

somatic motor

119
Q

the primary somatosensory cortex receives sensory information from

A

receptors of touch, pain, pressure, vibration, temperature

120
Q

the somatosensory association area monitors activity in ___ cortex and recognizes __

A

primary somatosensory; different sensations

121
Q

the gustatory cortex is located in the

A

insula

122
Q

function of the auditory association area

A

recognizes different sounds (such as speech/tones)

123
Q

the primary visual cortex receives visual information from

A

lateral geniculate bodies

124
Q

function of the visual association area

A

monitors activity and patterns in visual cortex and interprets the information

125
Q

what are the 5 functions of integrative centers?

A
  1. receive information from association areas
  2. direct motor activities
  3. perform analytical functions
  4. in lobes / cortical areas of both cerebral hemispheres
  5. language areas typically associated with left hemisphere
126
Q

the Broca’s areas is the ___ area

A

motor speech

127
Q

which area regulates breathing / vocalization patterns for normal speech

A

Broca’s area

128
Q

if the Broca’s area is damaged, can ___ but cannot __

A

make sounds, but not words

129
Q

the ___ cortex integrates information from sensory association areas and performs intellectual functions

A

prefrontal

130
Q

the frontal eye field controls___

A

learned eye movements

131
Q

example of function performed by frontal eye field

A

scanning lines of text

132
Q

which area is associated with language comprehension?

A

Wernicke’s area

133
Q

the wernicke’s area receives information from ___ association areas

A

somatosensory

134
Q

which area plays a key role in personality by linking sensory information to visual and auditory memories

A

Wernicke’s area

135
Q

what is hemispheric lateralization?

A

regional specialization of each hemisphere

136
Q

the left hemisphere contains the specialized __ areas

A

language, math

137
Q

the premotor cortex for hand movements is larger on the ___ side of the hand you write with

A

opposite

138
Q

the right cerebral hemisphere analyzes ___ information and relates ___ to it

A

sensory; body

139
Q

interpretive centers for identifying familiar objects by touch, smell, sight, taste is located in the ___ cerebral hemisphere

A

right

140
Q

interior of cerebral hemispheres mostly consists of ___ matter

A

white

141
Q

white matter is grouped based on __

A

function

142
Q

____ connect areas in the same cerebral hemisphere

A

association fibers

143
Q

____ connect the two cerebral hemispheres

A

commissural fibers

144
Q

what is the most important band of commissural fibers?

A

the corpus callosum

145
Q

the corpus callosum allows for ___ between through the two hemispheres

A

communication / coordination

146
Q

what is the anterior commissure?

A

smaller tract connecting the 2 hemispheres

147
Q

the anterior commissure becomes more important if

A

the corpus callosum is damaged

148
Q

what is the function of projection fibers?

A

link cerebral cortex to diencephalon, brainstem, cerebellum, and spinal cord

149
Q

all projection fibers pass through the ___

A

diencephalon

150
Q

neural function depends on __ events

A

electrical

151
Q

electrical activity of all the neurons in the brain generates __ measurable by ___ placed on the scalp

A

an electrical field; electrodes

152
Q

what is an EEG?

A

electroencephalogram that tracks electrical patterns “brain waves”

153
Q

alpha waves occur__ and disappear

A

in healthy awake adults who close their eyes; during sleep or with specific concentration

154
Q

beta wave have ___ frequency than alpha waves

A

higher

155
Q

beta waves appear in people who are

A

concentrating, under stress or tension

156
Q

theta waves appear transiently in __

A

normal sleep in adults

157
Q

theta waves are usually seen in

A

children and intensely frustrated adults

158
Q

delta waves have ___ amplitudes and __ frequency

A

large; low

159
Q

delta waves are found normally in ___

A

sleep in all ages

160
Q

delta waves in infants is a sign of

A

incomplete cortical development

161
Q

delta waves in an awake adult is a sign of

A

tumor, vascular block, inflammation damaged part of the brain

162
Q

how many pairs of cranial nerves are there ?

A

12

163
Q

CN I

A

olfactory nerve

164
Q

CN II

A

optic nerve

165
Q

CN III

A

oculomotor nerve

166
Q

CN IV

A

trochclear nerve

167
Q

CN V

A

trigeminal nerve

168
Q

CN VI

A

Abducens nerve

169
Q

CN VII

A

facial nerve

170
Q

CN VIII

A

vestibulocochlear nerve

171
Q

CN IX

A

glossopharyngeal nerve

172
Q

CN X

A

vagus nerve

173
Q

CN XI

A

accessory nerve

174
Q

CN XII

A

hypoglossal nerve

175
Q

sensory receptors

A

specialized cells / processes that alert CNS about conditions in / out of your body

176
Q

general senses

A

temperature, pain, touch, pressure, vibration, position

177
Q

where are general sense receptors found in the body?

A

scattered throughout

178
Q

sensory pathways begin at __ and end ___

A

begin at peripheral receptors and end in CNS

179
Q

sensations

A

information carried by a sensory pathway

180
Q

perception

A

conscious awareness of a sensation

181
Q

receptive field

A

area monitored by a single receptor cell

182
Q

the larger the receptor field, the ___ able to localize stimulus

A

less likely

183
Q

what are free nerve endings?

A

tips of dendrites of sensory neurons

184
Q

what is the simplest form of receptor?

A

free nerve endings

185
Q

describe the receptor specificity in free nerve endings

A

respond to many stimuli, so not much

186
Q

example of free nerve endings

A

pain receptors stimulated by chemicals, pressure, temperature, or trauma

187
Q

nociceptors are ___ receptors

A

pain

188
Q

nociceptors are free nerve endings with __ receptive fields and __ sensitivity

A

large; broad

189
Q

what 2 types of axons carry pain information?

A
  1. myelinated A type

2. unmyelinated C type

190
Q

myelinated A type axons carry __ pain

A

fast

191
Q

in myelinated A type axons, pain quickly reaches ____ for conscious awareness, triggering ___ reflexes

A

primary somatsensory cortex; somatic

192
Q

with type A pain, you can usually

A

locate the stimulus

193
Q

unmyelinated C type pain is ___ pain

A

slow (burning, aching)

194
Q

C type pain results in

A

general activation of reticular formation and thalamus

195
Q

with C type pain you are able to

A

tell youre in pain, but cant pinpoint past a general area

196
Q

thermoreceptors are free nerve endings in the __, __, ___, and ___

A

dermis, skeletal muscles, liver, hypothalamus

197
Q

cold receptors are 3-4 times more ___ than warm receptors

A

numerous

198
Q

what are the differences beteen cold and warm receptors?

A

none

199
Q

chemoreceptors respond to ___ and ___ substances dissolved in ___ such as ___

A

water and lipid soluble; body fluids (interstitial fluids, blood, CSF)

200
Q

mechanoreceptors respond to

A

physical distortion of their PM

201
Q

what are the 3 types of mechanoreceptors?

A
  1. proprioceptors
  2. baroreceptors
  3. tactile receptors
202
Q

proprioceptors monitor

A

position of joints/muscles

203
Q

what is the most complex type of general sensory receptor?

A

proprioceptor

204
Q

example of a proprioceptor

A

muscle spindle

205
Q

baroreceptors detect

A

pressure changes in BV, digestive, respiratory, and urinary tracts

206
Q

tactile receptors provide sensations of

A

touch, pressure, and vibration

207
Q

tactile receptors include

A

fine and crude touch/pressure receptors

208
Q

receptors are categorized by nature of

A

their response to stimulation

209
Q

tonic receptors are ___ adapting, always __

A

slow; active

210
Q

in tonic receptors, action potential reflects

A

level of stimulation

211
Q

phasic receptors are __ adapting and nomally

A

fast; inactive

212
Q

phasic receptors become active for a short time when

A

a change occurs in what they are monitoring

213
Q

adaption

A

reduction in sensitivity with constant stimulus

214
Q

what are the 2 types of adaption?

A
  1. peripheral

2. central

215
Q

peripheral adaption occurs when ___ changes: first responds ___, then activity ___

A

level of receptor activity; strongly, the activity declines

216
Q

peripheral adaption is especially characteristic to ___ receptors

A

phasic

217
Q

example of peripheral adaption

A

temperature is not noticed until it changes

218
Q

central adaptation occurs along ____ and involves

A

sensory pathways in CNS; inhibition of nuclei along sensory pathway

219
Q

example of central adaption

A

new smell stops after it is initially detected, but neurons still send signals

220
Q

tactile sensory receptors are ___ responding to ___

A

mechanoreceptors ; touch, pressure, vibration

221
Q

there is a great diversity of tactile sensory receptors in

A

the skin

222
Q

6 types of tactile receptors in the skin

A
  1. free nerve endings
  2. root hair plexus
  3. tactile discs
  4. tactile corpuscles
  5. lamellar corpuscles
  6. bulbous corpuscles
223
Q

what is the most common tactile receptor in the skin?

A

free nerve ending

224
Q

free nerve endings are ___ specific and respond to __

A

not; touch, pressure, pain, temperature

225
Q

root hair plexus monitors __

A

distortion/movement of hair follicle

226
Q

displacement of hair distorts ___ and generates

A

sensory dendrites; action potentials

227
Q

root hair plexus adapt __

A

rapidly

228
Q

tactile discs monitor

A

fine touch and pressure

229
Q

tactile discs have extremely ___ tonic receptors

A

sensitive

230
Q

tactile discs have ___ receptive fields

A

very small

231
Q

tactile corpuscles detect

A

fine touch, pressure, low frequency vbration

232
Q

tactile corpuscles adapt within __

A

1 second

233
Q

tactile corpuscles are abundant in

A

eyelids, lips, fingertips

234
Q

lamellar corpuscles are sensitive to

A

deep pressure

235
Q

lamellar corpuscles are ___ adapting and most sensitive to ___

A

fast; pulsing or high-frequency vibration

236
Q

lamellar corpuscles have ___ receptors

A

large

237
Q

lamellar corpuscles are abundant in

A

fingers, fasciae, joint capsules, some viscera (mesenteries, pancreas, urethra, and bladder)

238
Q

bulbous corpuscles are sensitive to

A

pressure and distortion of deep dermis

239
Q

tension of dermis stimulates

A

dendrite

240
Q

tonic receptors have __ adaption

A

little

241
Q

somatotopy

A

functional map of primary somatosensory cortex

242
Q

sensory hommunculus

A

somatotope showing the relative size of cortex devoted to any specific body area

243
Q

motor homunculus

A

functional map of primary motor cortex

244
Q

proportions reflect number of ___and degree of ___ in body region

A

motor units; fine motor control

Anatomy and Physiology (13 decks)

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