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Biochemistry > Chapter 13 > Flashcards

Chapter 13 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 6 enzyme classifications?

A

“Over The HILL”
Oxidoreductase
Transferase
Hydrolase
Isomerase
Lyases
Ligase

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2
Q

What is the function of an oxidoreductase?

A

electron transfer (redox reactions)

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3
Q

What is the function of transferase?

A

transfer of functional groups

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4
Q

What is the function of hydrolase?

A

bond breakage with water

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5
Q

What is the function of lyases?

A

double bond formation from group elimination

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6
Q

What is the function of isomerases?

A

change isomer

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7
Q

What is the function of ligase?

A

bond formation from ATP hydrolysis

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8
Q

Where does glycolysis occur?

A

Cytosol

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9
Q

What reactions are rate-limiting in glycolysis?

A

Reactions 1, 3, and 10

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10
Q

What are the three rate-limiting enzymes of glycolysis?

A

Hexokinase
PFK
PK

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11
Q

Which reactions of glycolysis produce ATP?

A

PGK (reaction 7) and PK (reaction 10)

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12
Q

What are endocrine hormones?

A

Hormones released from endocrine glands into the bloodstream

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13
Q

What is the function of endocrine hormones?

A

Regulate physiological processes:
Maintain homeostasis
Respond to external stimuli
Developmental programs

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14
Q

What determines the specificity of signaling?

A

Presence of receptor

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15
Q

What is an agonist?

A

Substances that initiate a physiological response

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16
Q

What is an antagonist?

A

Substance that interferes with or inhibits the physiological action of another

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17
Q

What is exocrine secretion?

A

Release of substances onto the body surface (outside body)

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18
Q

Where do pancreatic secretions go?

A

Mostly digestive system (exocrine), but 1-2% are endocrine hormones

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19
Q

What type of hormones does the pancreas create?

A

Polypeptide (protein) prohormones

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20
Q

What organ of the endocrine system has alpha, beta, and gamma cells?

A

Pancreas

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21
Q

What do alpha-pancreatic cells secrete?

A

Glucagon

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22
Q

What is the purpose of glucagon?

A

Responds to low blood glucose

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23
Q

What do beta-pancreatic cells secrete?

A

Insulin

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24
Q

What is the purpose of insulin?

A

Responds to high blood glucose

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25
Q

What do gamma-pancreatic cells secrete?

A

Somatostatin

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26
Q

What is the purpose of somatostatin?

A

Inhibits secretion of insulin and glucagon

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27
Q

What is/are the primary targets of pancreatic hormones?

A

Liver, muscle, and adipose cells

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28
Q

Where are the adrenal glands located?

A

Above the kidneys

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29
Q

What are catecholamines?

A

Hormones made in the adrenal glands

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30
Q

What are the main hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla?

A

Norepinephrine and epinephrine

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31
Q

What are the two parts of the adrenal glands?

A

Cortex and medulla

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32
Q

What is the target of catecholamines?

A

alpha and beta-adrenergic receptors

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33
Q

What is the function of a beta-adrenergic agonist?

A

mimic the effect of adrenalin on beta-adrenergic receptors

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34
Q

What is the function of beta-adrenergic antagonists?

A

Minimize the effect of adrenaline release

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35
Q

What is the real name of beta blockers?

A

Beta-adrenergic antagonist

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36
Q

What drug is an example of a beta-adrenergic agonist?

A

Isoproterenol

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37
Q

What drug is an example of a beta-antagonist?

A

Propranolol

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38
Q

What drug is an example of an alpha-adrenergic antagonist?

A

Phentolamine

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39
Q

What is the function of glucocorticoids?

A

Regulate fuel metabolism, inflammatory reactions, and stress

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40
Q

What is an example of a glucocorticoid?

A

Cortisol

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41
Q

What is the function of mineralocorticoids?

A

Regulate salt and water balance

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42
Q

What is an example of a mineralocorticoid?

A

Aldosterone

43
Q

What is the function of androgens?

A

Sexual development and function

44
Q

What is an example of an androgen?

A

Testosterone

45
Q

Where are steroid hormones produced?

A

Adrenal cortex, testes, and ovaries

46
Q

What is unique about steroid hormones?

A

Lipid soluble; allows them to pass through the lipid bilayer and bind to cytosolic receptors

47
Q

What do steroid hormones do upon binding to their receptor?

A

Move into the nucleus and act as a transcription factor

48
Q

What is referred to as the “master gland”?

A

Pituitary gland

49
Q

What is the function of hormones produced by the pituitary gland?

A

Regulate other endocrine glands

50
Q

What amino acid is epinephrine and norepinephrine synthesized from?

51
Q

What is the function of adrenocorticotrophic hormone?

A

Signals kidney to regulate cortisol

52
Q

What is the function of gonadotropins?

A

Regulate ovarian and testicular function

53
Q

What is the function of prolactin?

A

Regulate mammary gland development and milk production

54
Q

What is the function of thyroid stimulating hormone?

A

Regulate the amount of thyroid hormone that is being produced/released

55
Q

What type of hormone is growth hormone?

A

Peptide Hormone

56
Q

Where are the target receptors of growth hormone?

A

Muscle, bone, and cartilage

57
Q

What is the difference between gigantism and acromegaly?

A

Gigantism is before skeletal system maturity (excess growth, but normal proportions) and acromegaly is after (excess growth of soft tissues)

58
Q

What hormone is produced by adipose tissue?

59
Q

What is leptin?

A

Protein hormone that regulates appetite and metabolism

60
Q

What cells does leptin act on? What does binding cause?

A

Hypothalamus; prevents hunger

61
Q

What are the 3 ways the body controls enzyme activity?

A

Product/Substrate Availability
Allosteric Regulation
Covalent Modification

62
Q

What are the 3 main types of covalent modification?

A

Glycosylation (adding carb)
Methylation (adding -CH3)
Phosphorylation (adding phosphate)

63
Q

What amino acids are targeted by phosphorylation?

A

Hydroxylated amino acids
Serine, Ser, S
Threonine, Thr, T
Tyrosine, Tyr, Y

64
Q

What type of enzyme adds a phosphate group? Removes?

A

Kinase: adds
Phosphatase: remove

65
Q

What is dimerization?

A

Process of joining two molecular entities

66
Q

What binds to the autophosphorylated tyrosine kinases of an RTK?

A

SH2 Domain

67
Q

What does a SH3 domain bind to?

A

Proline-rich sequences

68
Q

What are the steps of an RTK?

A
  1. Ligand binding
  2. Dimerization
  3. Autophosphorylation
  4. SH2 domain binding
  5. Adaptor protein linkage to G-protein
69
Q

What is a G-protein?

A

GTP Hydrolyzing protein

70
Q

What is a GAP?

A

GTPase Activating Protein

71
Q

What is a GEF?

A

Guanine Nucleotide Exchange Factor

72
Q

What is an example of a GEF?

73
Q

What are the steps of small G-protein activation?

A
  1. Sos binding to SH3 domain of RTK
  2. Sos removes GDP for Ras
  3. New GTP binds to Ras
  4. GTP-bound Ras is active
  5. Ras activated Raf
  6. Activated Raf causes MEK to be phosphorylated
  7. pMEK phosphorylates MAPK
  8. pMAPK moves into nucleus
  9. pMAPK phosphorylates transcription factors
74
Q

What transcription factors get activated during the MAP kinase pathway?

A

Fos, Jun, and Myc

75
Q

What do Non-Receptor Tyrosine Kinases include?

A

Growth Hormone Receptor
Cytokine Receptor
Interferon Receptor
T Cell Receptor
Src

76
Q

What type of protein is Src?

A

Myristoylated Protein
- Myristoyl is a fatty acid
- Associated with lipid bilayer

77
Q

What are the domains of Src?

A

SH2
SH3
PTK (N and C lobe)

78
Q

What is autoinhibitory of Src?

79
Q

What is the result of pY527 in Src?

A

SH2 domain will bind to its own phosphotyrosine

80
Q

What phosphorylation is required for the activity of Src?

81
Q

What is the result of pY416 in Src?

A

416 phosphotyrosine will move out of binding pocket, allowing other molecules to be phosphorylated by Src’s ATP

82
Q

Where does the phosphate needed for Src activity come from?

A

The ATP in its own binding pocket

83
Q

What is the function of the enzyme PTP?

A

Dephosphorylate tyrosine residue

84
Q

How does PTP function?

A

Transfers phosphoryl group to Cys residue on enzyme and then hydrolyzes it off

85
Q

What domain is autoinhibitory of PTP?

A

SH2 Domain

86
Q

How many transmembrane domains are present in GPCR?

87
Q

What is a GPCR?

A

G-Protein Coupled Receptor; has 3 G-Proteins in a complex (alpha, beta, and gamma)

88
Q

What is the activity of the trimeric complex of a GPCR?

A

Trimeric complex is inactive

89
Q

What is the pathway of a GPCR?

A
  1. Ligase binding
  2. Alpha subunit released
  3. Exchange of GDP for GTP
  4. Protein signaling (ex. adenylate cyclase)
90
Q

What is the structure of cAMP?

A

3’,5’-Cyclic AMP
Adenosine + Sugar w/ oxygen (from one phosphate) on carbon 3 and carbon 5

91
Q

What is the effect of G-alpha-s?

A

Increase cAMP by stimulating adenylate cyclase

92
Q

What inhibits G-alpha-s?

A

Cholera toxin

93
Q

What is the effect of G-alpha-i?

A

Stops cellular cAMP production by inhibiting Adenylate Cyclase

94
Q

What inhibits G-alpha-i?

A

Pertussis toxin

95
Q

What is the function of cAMP phosphodiesterase?

A

Hydrolyzes cAMP to AMP, preventing activation of PKA

96
Q

What drug inhibits cAMP PDE?

A

Sildenafil (Viagra)

97
Q

What is Protein Kinase A?

A

Serine/Threonine Kinase

98
Q

What is the function of Protein Kinase A?

A

Activated by 4 molecules of cAMP -> Phosphorylates Protein -> Cellular response

99
Q

What enzyme removes phosphates from proteins?

A

Phosphoprotein phosphatase

100
Q

What form is the G-alpha subunit in during the phosphoinositide pathway?

101
Q

What occurs in the phosphoinositide pathway?

A

GTP-bound Gaq binds to phospholipase C and hydrolyzes PIP to DAG and IP3

102
Q

What occurs after IP3 is produced by PLC?

A
  1. Binds to ER calcium channel
  2. Releases Ca2+
  3. Ca2+ binds to calmodulin
  4. Ca2+-CaM binds to CaM kinase
  5. CaM kinase phosphorylates protein
  6. Cellular response
103
Q

What occurs after DAG is produced by PLC?

A
  1. Binds to Protein Kinase C
  2. PKC binds to Ca2+ through phosphatidylserine
  3. PKC (bound to DAG and PS) phosphorylates a protein
  4. Cellular response
104
Q

What enzyme is used to hydrolyze IP3 to IP2?

A

Inositol Polyphosphate 5-phosphatase

Biochemistry (17 decks)

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