Chapter 11 - Understanding Self and Others Flashcards
The idea of the self is the basis of all concepts in __________ ___________.
developmental psychology
The self concept _______ and _________
evolves and changes
What is the self-concept?
The self-concept is one’s knowledge of, and thoughts about, the set of qualities attributed to the self - you know these things about yourself
What is meant by William James’ ‘I’?
The ‘I’ is the subjective self, which is the inner sense that ‘I am’ and ‘I exist’. It is when the self is seperate from others - “I am not the same as my friends”
What is meant by William James’ ‘Me’
The ‘me’ is the objective self, which is knowledge and observable. It includes physical characteristics because we don’t all look the same; temperament/personality because it is objective and observable; and social skills
Psychologically, there are aspects of the subjective self that are off-limits to ____.
you
Both the objective and subject self develop _________ to one another
paralell
In the first year of life, the infant develops a sense of himself as an _______ of the ________.
agent; world
In the first year, agency is ________, and not ________
tangible; limited
Piaget argues that ______ ___________ helps to develop awareness of the subjective self
object permanence
Object permanence requires more development of the _______ lobe
frontal
Bandura argues that the sense of ______ ______ has roots in the first year
self-efficacy
The objective self is what is _______ by other people
observed
Explain what happens to 4-months-olds in terms of self-awareness?
4-month-olds respond differently to live video or photographs by looking longer at images of others because they start to see faces and fixate on them because faces are how we communicate.
True or False: Babies fixate on real people’s faces to get the sense that there are characteristics that all other people have
True; we know this because we can see them
What did Lewis and Brooks find?
Lewis and Brooks found that 75% of 21-month-olds recognized themselves in a mirror and most 9-12 months did not
A kid requires a lot of _____
care
By 15 months, infants begin to show ______________ in mirror tasks
self-recognition
What occurs at 18-24 months for children?
At 18-24 months, children look more at photos of themselves than others and refer to themselves by their name or personal pronoun
Self-concept comes from ____-________
self-awareness
Self-awareness brings ____-____
self-will
In order to know what is yours, you need to know that you _____ and that what you see is an _______ of yourself
exist; extension
Emotions such as shame or pride require:
some awareness of standards of conduct (ethics), and the ability to compare themselves to those standards
The sense of self emerges from ______ into a much more __________ world
agency; hypothetical
As behaviour adapts, children develop ________ that accompany how they do or what they do
emotions
Explain Early Self Definitions for children around the age of 2
By age two, kids are players in a social game and have social scripts which define their roles within the game, which starts to become much more elaborate. They start to name things.
Explain Early Self Definitions for children between the ages of 5 and 7
Children have a full description of competence in skills: they know what they can do, and they can reflect on what their capabilities are. They become much more reflective in a hypothetical place
Explain self concept at school age
Self-concept starts with simple, physically-based descriptions (which are concrete) and shifts into more abstract, comparative and generalized descriptions that are relatively stable and provide a global sense of self-worth.
What else do children emphasize?
Beliefs, quality of relationships, general personality traits, and positive and negative traits
Academic comparison starts in the _____ grade
third
Explain the self-concept and identity in adolescence
Self descriptions shift to abstract traits and ideology and become more differentiated (seperate themselves from their parents)
Within the evolving self-concept, there is ________ ___________, and __________ development takes place
cultural variability; linguistic
In self descriptions, preschoolers mention concrete characteristics such as:
physical characteristics, preferences, possessions, and competencies
Identity is how we see:
ourselves
Explain the academic self-concept
The Academic self concept has internal comparisons to self-generated ideas. It is not necessarily imposed.
_________ _______________ in one area can affect self-concept in other areas
Perceived competence; i.e. failing a math test can carry over for a long time
Explain Erikson’s Identity Crisis
Within this, there is the concept of identity versus role confusion - meaning you cannot stay a child. It involves forging a new identity and the self-concept remaining continuous when adolescents start to form into what their adult identity will be.
What are the roles that play a part in Erikson’s identity crisis?
Occupational roles, sexual roles, religious roles,
What is the goal of all the roles and relationships in Erikson’s Identity Crisis?
Integration
Adolescents use ________ _________ to experiment with different selves
hypothetical reasoning
True or False: Teenagers take on different roles and personality types depending on who they’re with
True
Adolescence is characterized by ______ ________
self-absorption
What is self-absorption?
Self absorption is when someone is really full of themselves; vain, popularity, not wanting to talk to people who are ‘uncool’
What is adolescence egocentrism?
The idea that everything in the world revolves around the adolescence and that everything has to change for them
What is an imaginary audience?
Putting on a performance; modelling in front of the mirror, practicing what to say
What is a personal fable?
The story that an adolescent tells themselves about who they are and how important they are
What is the illusion of invulnerability?
Adolescents are more prone to accidental behaviours because the frontal lobe isn’t fully developed until the mid-20s
What is meant by one’s ethnic identity?
Feeling a part of one’s ethnic group; most people live in a familial environment and as children do not realize that they live in a culture and that a culture exists.
What is enculturation?
Enculturation is to what extent are you a part of the culture you grew up in
What does it mean to be bicultural?
Raised in a home that has one culture but lives in places where different cultures coexist
What is acculturation?
The idea that an adolescent can become comfortable in another culture
Marcia looks at the degree of _______ and the degree of ___________.
crisis; commitment
What is identity achievement?
When you’ve been through a crisis and reached a commitment; point of stability
When the crisis level of high, it is the period of:
decision making
What is moratorium?
When there is a crisis in progress and no commitment; one is trying to figure out what they should follow
What is foreclosure?
Foreclosure is commitment without the crisis
What is identity diffusion?
No crisis; no commitment
What is a crisis in the context of Marcia’s identity stages?
The period of decision making; deciding what norms to follow
What is a commitment in the context of Marcia’s identity stages?
A role or ideology; deciding which role to follow out of a handful of norms
What characteristics are associated with identity achievement and foreclosure?
Higher self-esteem, more goal-directed, and lower levels of depression
For adolescents, achieving an identity may be challenging due to belonging to an:
ethnic minority group
Many are able to maintain strong ties to both _____ and __________ cultures, while others find that identifying with one (mainstream) weakens the other (ethnic) ties and may create conflict with parents
ethnic; mainstream
A strong ethnic identity benefits _____-________ and __________.
self-esteem; relationships
What is self-esteem?
Self-esteem is the global evaluation of our self-worth - what is my value as a person?
Self-esteem can be studied _________ or __________ across time
positively; negatively
What are the four areas of self-esteem that emerge in the elementary school years?
Scholastic, athletic, social, and physical
_____-_______ in some domains contributes more than others to the overall sense of self-worth
Self-esteem
Self-esteem is highest in ____________
preschoolers
What leads to drops in self-esteem at the beginning of elementary school?
Social comparisions
_______ and _______ influence self-esteem in different domains
ethnicity and culture
Self worth, as well as the direction of changes in self-worth, varies for children with different ______ _________
ethnic backgrounds
Individuals from _______ cultures are more likely to emphasize modesty, admit weaknesses, and eschew social comparisons.
Asian
True or False: Children’s self-worth is greater when they are skilled in areas that matter to them
True
Children have higher self-esteem when parents are _______ and _________ and establish rules concerning discipline
nurturing; involved
Praise should focus on _____ rather than ______
effort; ability
When faced with an apparent setback in their work, children who are praised for their ______ will work harder, as opposed to children that are praised for their ________ who will not try as hard.
effort; ability
What are children with low self-esteem more likely to have?
Problems with peers, psychological disorders, be involved in bullying and aggressive behaviour, and do poorly in school.
________ can be a life-long outcome of low self-esteem
Depression
What is low self-esteem?
Low self-esteem is both a cause of future harmful outcomes and a consequence of past difficulties
An inflated sense of ____-_____ can contribute to bullying and aggression
self-worth
Descriptions of others follow a similar course as descriptions of self, and become increasingly _______.
abstract
Children begin with a focus on concrete characteristics such as appearance, but by adolescence, descriptions are more abstract and emphasize ____________ _______.
psychological traits
Until about age ____, children demonstrate a bias for seeing positive traits in others
10
Preschoolers are ________
egocentric
According to Selman, perspective-taking increases with ___ and depends on _________ ___________.
age; cognitive development
What are Selman’s 5 stages:
Undifferentiated, social-informational, self-reflective, third-person, and societal
Perspective-taking is linked to the ______ of ______.
theory; mind
True or False: Children with good perspective-taking skills usually get along better with their peers, but can also use this awareness to tease or bully
True
Explain the Undifferentiated Stage
Between ages 3-6, children know that self and others can have different thoughts and feelings, but they often confuse the two.
They may say that ‘mommy is sad’ because they’re feeling sad, or its the other way around
Explain the social-informational stage
Between ages 4-9, children know that perspectives differ because people have access to different information
Explain the self-reflective stage
Between ages 7-12, children can step into another’s shoes and view themselves as others do; they know that others can do the same.
Children can be reflective perceptually, cognitively, emotionally, ethically, and culturally
Explain the third-person stage
Between ages 10-15, children and adolescnets can step outside the immediate situation to see how they and another person are viewed by a third person.
It is much more hypothetical so it fits with the formal operational stage - you’re able to take the third person perspective that isn’t present in front of you and understand how that person would assess your objective self.
Explain the Societal stage
From 14 years to adulthood, adolescents realize that a third person’s perspective is influenced by broader personal, social, and culture contexts
The way that others see the world is influenced by a number of factors.
What occurs in terms of self-control for 1 year olds?
They are aware that others impose demands and that they have expectations. They understand that it is not appropriate to act in certain ways and that you have to regulate your own behaviour
What occurs in self-control for 2 year olds?
They have internalized some controls; what begins as external starts to become internalized
What occurs in terms of self-control for three year olds?
They are capable of self-regulation and have the sense of being able to control the effects of their behaviour and to change according to the situation
Self control develops gradually during :
elementary school
Adults have a harder time than children ____________ themselves
controlling
Self-control is the first seed of developing an _______ and _____ system
ethical; moral
What is inductive reasoning?
Inductive reasoning is being able to take the outcome of a specific event and generalize it, explain it to a child, and encourage them to think it through on their own
Very strict parents _____ the development of self-control
hinder
Both ___________ and ________ influence the development of self control
temperament; culture
What are helpful suggestions to aid in improving children’s self control?
Reminding children of the need to resist temptation, and make tempting events less attractive
What does it mean to be premoral
Being premoral means the child is between the ages of 1-4, and they have no consistent understanding of morality, and this inconsistency points to the fact that there is little to no understanding.
Explain the moral realism stage?
Between the ages of 5 and 7, children believe that rules must be followed and cannot be changed. They move from not understanding the rules to having a strong respect for the rules.
In the moral realism stage, the rules are _______ and they can never be ___________.
unchanging; questioned
What is heteronomous morality?
Absolute rules handed down by another
What is meant by immanent justice?
The belief that breaking a rule always leads to punishment
Explain the moral relativism stage?
Around 8 years of age emerges the understanding that rules are created by people to help them get along. Rather than rules being absolute, they can understand that people create rules to help them stay safe and get along in society.
What is autonomous morality?
The understanding is that many people work together to create rules. Its based on free will - you can choose to not follow rules, but there are consequences
What is the major contribution of Piaget in terms of moral reasoning?
According to Piaget, moral reasoning progresses through stages that are driven by cognitive development and social interaction
Like Piaget, Kohlberg believed that development is through ______.
stages
Explain Kohlberg’s theory
The main focus of Kohlberg’s theory is how do we resolve issues? He uses dilemmas to examine moral reasoning with three levels.
What are the three stages of Kohlberg’s theory?
Preconventional, conventional, and postconventional
What is the preconventional stage?
This stage focuses on obedience to authority and the desire to avoid punishment and gain reward
What is the conventional stage?
The conventional stage focuses on social norms and says that children behave in such a way in order to solicit the approval of others; and thrive to maintain approval and good relationships with others.
In this stage, children always have to follow the rules
What is the postconventional stage?
This stage focuses on personal, moral principles
What are the 2 stages in the preconventional level?
Stage 1: Avoiding punishment, Stage 2: aiming at a reward
What are the 2 stages at the conventional level?
Stage 3: Good boy and good girl attitude, Stage 4: Loyalty to law and order
What are the 2 stages at the post-conventional level?
Stage 5: Justice and the spirit of the law, Stage 6: Universal Principles of Ethics
What supports Kohlberg’s theory?
1) People progress through the stages in sequence, 2) Moral reasoning is linked to moral behaviour
Gilligan questioned ________ to _______ in Kohlberg’s theory and advanced an ‘ethic of care’
orientation; justice
Gilligan suggested that ______ applies more to male’s reasoning about morality, and females are more focused on _____ for others.
justice; concern
Morality represents one domain of ______ ________.
social judgement
What are social conventions?
Social conventions are arbitrary standards of behaviour agreed to within a group to facilitate interactions - applied by society
What is meant by the term ‘personal domains’
Personal domains refer to choices about one’s own body, friends, and activities
Much of moral developmental theory emphasizes _______
cognition
__________ and __________ interact in the development of moral judgements
Emotions and cognition
The emotional response is an important step in creating different categories of ____ _______
moral concepts
