chapter 11, 12 Flashcards
stress as a stimulus
This puts the focus on stressful events themselves and on the
external environment. This perspective specifically proposes that life events have
cumulative effects. In addition to life events, daily hassles can also have a very stressful
nature
Stress as a psychological transaction
between the stimulus event and the
cognitive/emotional characteristics of the individual. According to this theory, stress is a
subjective experience/an internal state of being. According to Lazarus, a key figure in this
domain, stress is a result of an interaction between an individual’s characteristics and
appraisals, the environment, and the resources the person has available to them. There has
been a divide between different types of appraisals. On the one hand, there is the
primary appraisal process, in which the person coincides the quality and nature of the
stimulus event. In secondary appraisal, one assesses one’s resources and abilities to cope with the stressors. Stress would occur when there is a mismatch between perceived
demands and resources. Stress is thus seen as a dynamic process.§
Hobfoll proposed a ‘conservation of resources’ model of stress
whereby stress occurs
when there is a threat to one’s resources (e.g time, money, skills). Acute stress is the rapid and
extensive depletion of valued resources. This can follow from cataclysmic events such as natural
disasters or even from exam periods.
One can also experience chronic stress from their occupation.
goodness-of-fit approach by Lazarus
A possible explanation of
why one’s job can come across as stressful is offered by the goodness-of-fit approach by
Lazarus. Such approaches suggest that stress arises because of a mismatch between
environmental variables and personal variables. The ‘fit’ is considered as dynamic.
Selye: general adaptation syndrome
- The alarm process. We now know that circulating glucocorticoids provide energy for the
alarm phase. - The stage of resistance
- The stage of exhaustion
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system (HPA)
that enables our bodily
organs to alter their usual function to facilitate a longer-lasting adaptive response to stress.
Physiological responses to stress, e.f the release of cortisol, can have negative effects in the long
term such as the suppression of the immune system.
Aging can also cause your immune function
to decline. why?
This is partly because natural killer cells become less efficient
‘reactivity hypothesis’
Genetic and environmental factors can combine to influence a person’s
vulnerability to physiological responses
Although acute stress has been found
to be implanted in coronary heart disease (from the activation of the sympathetic nervous
system)…
there is no clear link between the formation of cancer and stress.
problem-focused approach or attentional
coping is more likely to be adaptive..
when
there is control over the stressor.
However, both problem and
emotion-focused coping are interdependent
and work together to create an overall coping response.
extraversion and coping
uses active coping
dispositional optimism
People with this type of optimism
are less likely to make internal, stable, and global attributions for negative events; they perceive
stress as changeable. Optimism is therefore associated with active coping and a reduced negative
mood.
difference between hope, optimism and self-efficacy
Hope
is about the motivation and route to achieving goals, whereas optimism reflects a general
positive outcome expectancy that is not founded solely on agency and pathway thinking.
Furthermore, self-efficacy is more of a situational and goal-specific belief that depends on
various contingencies
e C personality
There is mixed evidence of the benefits of this personality type
A type D personality,
is best described as a distressed personality with a high negative affectivity and
social inhibition.
Instrumental support
is more helpful if aspects of the event are controllable, like financial assistance.
emotional support
is more helpful when things are uncontrollable. Furthermore, evidence of a
relationship between life stress and health status has pointed to social support as a moderator.
The direct effects
hypothesis s
suggests that social support is beneficial regardless of the amount of stress people
experience
The buffering hypothesis
however, suggests that social support acts as a buffer by
either influencing cognitive appraisals or modifying the person’s coping response. There are
consistent findings that cultural differences exist in the norms of support-seeking behavior.
the HPA-axis
uses hormones
as the main communication system, and causes more long-term stress
The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems use neurotransmitters as the
main communication system and cause
fast, acute stress
How does stress affect the brain? →
Remodeling of dendrites and synaptic corrections
Why is it hard to stop long-term stress? →
The brain areas that are affected are also the
off button of stress
transactional model of stress
cognitive appraisal is central. It distinguishes
between primary appraisal (what do you think about the situation) and secondary appraisal (the
resources at hand to cope with demand).
The effect of stress on the body is influenced by what 3 things?
adversity, duration, and
uncontrollability/unpredictability
What is hardiness?
defends against illness. It can be created by a rich, structured
environment growing up. Perceived support is more predictive of outcome than actual support.
Giving social support is also associated with resilience to stress.
What is hardiness?
defends against illness. It can be created by a rich, structured
environment growing up. Perceived support is more predictive of outcome than actual support.
Giving social support is also associated with resilience to stress.
Allostasis
Process of achieving homogeneity (stability) through psychological and behavioral adaptation in response to a challenge
Allostatic over(load)
Demands exceed energy supplies: kind of balance may be achieved but system needs to work too hard and slowly breaks down.
Overload of physiological system due to ‘wear and tear’ for
example resulting from repeated or prolonged stress.
Duration of physiological response important:
prolonged or repeated release of physiological
responses to stress can have detrimental effects
Sympathetic Nervous System
(SNS) or SAM (sympatheticadrenal-medullary axis):
Main signaling agents:
Catecholamines (e.g.,
(nor)adrenaline)
Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal
(HPA):
Main signaling agents:
Glucocorticoids (e.g., cortisol):
- When the stress has abated..
feedback loops initiate an automatic turn off
Stress affects the brain negatively.. how?
- Chronic stress causes remodeling of
dendrites and synaptic connections in many
brain regions; in the hippocampus,
amygdala, medial prefrontal and
orbitofrontal cortices - These areas control the cortisol
production (off-button) which is now
reduced: circulatory
Criticism onn the general adaptation syndrome
Criticism: The physiological response can differ depending on the
type of stressor (specific response)
transient events
*acute time-limiting stressors
*traumatic events
*(major) life events (e.g., death of a close family member) –> Life
events theory (Holmes & Rahe, 1967)
- Primary appraisal (perceived demands):
personal meaning of an event, consideration of quality & nature
of event:
3 types of stressors:
- harm-loss(damage that already occured)
- threat(future harm/loss)
- challenge (demands appraised as opportunitiesfor personal growth)
- Secondary appraisal (resources)
personal belief of capacity to reduce the stressor, consideration
of resources (internal and external) and coping potential
Criticism of Lazarus’s framework
Perceived demands (primary appraisal) versus
coping resources (secondary appraisal):
* How do these concepts interact (circulatory)?
* Are these separate concepts?
* Are they both necessary or can one concept
explain health or illness outcomes?
* Do resources need to outweigh demands
Basal psychological factors that determine effect of
stress on body:
- Adversity (nature of threat)
- Uncontrollability &
Unpredictabilty - Duration
ADVERSITY:
TYPES OF THREAT
Physical: direct threat by
- physical integrity by e.g. cold, heat, toxins, infections, (via immune
system), bleeding, violence (predators or intra-species), hunger, thirst,
exhaustion, sleep deprivation
Psychological: perceived threat of :
- physical integrity by physical adversity; see above
or
- psychological integrity: i.a. security/safety;
belongingness/intimacy/sex; autonomy/prestige; (only humans: ‘self
actualisation’)
NB: for humans threat = often social: expulsion/social exclusion
stress appraisal
A study by Keller et al (2012) indicated
that individuals reporting both a high
amount of stress and the perception that
stress affects their health are at a greater
risk of premature mortality.
These findings support the notion that
stress appraisal is critical in
determining outcomes (Lazarus &
Folkman, 1984).
Coping: Style vs. Strategy
Style – trait; unspecific to
stressor/context
* approach problems, seek
out threat relevant
information, or
* avoid or distract
themselves from threatrelevant information
Strategy – varies according
to event/context
* Situation-specific coping
varies to context, the
stressor, and the person’s
personality, mood, etc.
* Coping may include
opposite strategies i.e.
passive coping and
problem-focused coping
Emotional disclosure
(e.g., short writing about feelings) is a
possible moderator of coping (Pennebaker)
* Long-term benefits of reduced stress of low-cost easy
intervention
However, venting negative emotions (part of expressed emotion)
is sometimes associated with poorer prog
oxytocin
affects social bonding processes and stress regulation
dependent on aspects of context and interindividual factors.
