chapter 11, 12

Question 1

stress as a stimulus

Answer 1

This puts the focus on stressful events themselves and on the
external environment. This perspective specifically proposes that life events have
cumulative effects. In addition to life events, daily hassles can also have a very stressful
nature

Question 2

Stress as a psychological transaction

Answer 2

between the stimulus event and the
cognitive/emotional characteristics of the individual. According to this theory, stress is a
subjective experience/an internal state of being. According to Lazarus, a key figure in this
domain, stress is a result of an interaction between an individual’s characteristics and
appraisals, the environment, and the resources the person has available to them. There has
been a divide between different types of appraisals. On the one hand, there is the
primary appraisal process, in which the person coincides the quality and nature of the
stimulus event. In secondary appraisal, one assesses one’s resources and abilities to cope with the stressors. Stress would occur when there is a mismatch between perceived
demands and resources. Stress is thus seen as a dynamic process.§

Question 3

Hobfoll proposed a ‘conservation of resources’ model of stress

Answer 3

whereby stress occurs
when there is a threat to one’s resources (e.g time, money, skills). Acute stress is the rapid and
extensive depletion of valued resources. This can follow from cataclysmic events such as natural
disasters or even from exam periods.
One can also experience chronic stress from their occupation.

Question 4

goodness-of-fit approach by Lazarus

Answer 4

A possible explanation of
why one’s job can come across as stressful is offered by the goodness-of-fit approach by
Lazarus. Such approaches suggest that stress arises because of a mismatch between
environmental variables and personal variables. The ‘fit’ is considered as dynamic.

Question 5

Selye: general adaptation syndrome

Answer 5

1. The alarm process. We now know that circulating glucocorticoids provide energy for the
   alarm phase.
2. The stage of resistance
3. The stage of exhaustion

Question 6

hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system (HPA)

Answer 6

that enables our bodily
organs to alter their usual function to facilitate a longer-lasting adaptive response to stress.
Physiological responses to stress, e.f the release of cortisol, can have negative effects in the long
term such as the suppression of the immune system.

Question 7

Aging can also cause your immune function
to decline. why?

Answer 7

This is partly because natural killer cells become less efficient

Question 8

‘reactivity hypothesis’

Answer 8

Genetic and environmental factors can combine to influence a person’s
vulnerability to physiological responses

Question 9

Although acute stress has been found
to be implanted in coronary heart disease (from the activation of the sympathetic nervous
system)…

Answer 9

there is no clear link between the formation of cancer and stress.

Question 10

problem-focused approach or attentional
coping is more likely to be adaptive..

Answer 10

when
there is control over the stressor.
However, both problem and
emotion-focused coping are interdependent
and work together to create an overall coping response.

Question 11

extraversion and coping

Answer 11

uses active coping

Question 12

dispositional optimism

Answer 12

People with this type of optimism
are less likely to make internal, stable, and global attributions for negative events; they perceive
stress as changeable. Optimism is therefore associated with active coping and a reduced negative
mood.

Question 13

difference between hope, optimism and self-efficacy

Answer 13

Hope
is about the motivation and route to achieving goals, whereas optimism reflects a general
positive outcome expectancy that is not founded solely on agency and pathway thinking.
Furthermore, self-efficacy is more of a situational and goal-specific belief that depends on
various contingencies

Question 14

e C personality

Answer 14

There is mixed evidence of the benefits of this personality type

Question 15

A type D personality,

Answer 15

is best described as a distressed personality with a high negative affectivity and
social inhibition.

Question 16

Instrumental support

Answer 16

is more helpful if aspects of the event are controllable, like financial assistance.

Question 17

emotional support

Answer 17

is more helpful when things are uncontrollable. Furthermore, evidence of a
relationship between life stress and health status has pointed to social support as a moderator.

Question 18

The direct effects
hypothesis s

Answer 18

suggests that social support is beneficial regardless of the amount of stress people
experience

Question 19

The buffering hypothesis

Answer 19

however, suggests that social support acts as a buffer by
either influencing cognitive appraisals or modifying the person’s coping response. There are
consistent findings that cultural differences exist in the norms of support-seeking behavior.

Question 20

the HPA-axis

Answer 20

uses hormones
as the main communication system, and causes more long-term stress

Question 21

The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems use neurotransmitters as the
main communication system and cause

Answer 21

fast, acute stress

Question 22

How does stress affect the brain? →

Answer 22

Remodeling of dendrites and synaptic corrections

Question 23

Why is it hard to stop long-term stress? →

Answer 23

The brain areas that are affected are also the
off button of stress

Question 24

transactional model of stress

Answer 24

cognitive appraisal is central. It distinguishes
between primary appraisal (what do you think about the situation) and secondary appraisal (the
resources at hand to cope with demand).

Question 25

The effect of stress on the body is influenced by what 3 things?

Answer 25

adversity, duration, and
uncontrollability/unpredictability

Question 26

What is hardiness?

Answer 26

defends against illness. It can be created by a rich, structured
environment growing up. Perceived support is more predictive of outcome than actual support.
Giving social support is also associated with resilience to stress.

Question 27

What is hardiness?

Answer 27

defends against illness. It can be created by a rich, structured
environment growing up. Perceived support is more predictive of outcome than actual support.
Giving social support is also associated with resilience to stress.

Question 28

Allostasis

Answer 28

Process of achieving homogeneity (stability) through psychological and behavioral adaptation in response to a challenge

Question 29

Allostatic over(load)

Answer 29

Demands exceed energy supplies: kind of balance may be achieved but system needs to work too hard and slowly breaks down.

Overload of physiological system due to ‘wear and tear’ for
example resulting from repeated or prolonged stress.

Duration of physiological response important:
prolonged or repeated release of physiological
responses to stress can have detrimental effects

Question 30

Sympathetic Nervous System
(SNS) or SAM (sympatheticadrenal-medullary axis):
Main signaling agents:

Answer 30

Catecholamines (e.g.,
(nor)adrenaline)

Question 31

Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal
(HPA):
Main signaling agents:

Answer 31

Glucocorticoids (e.g., cortisol):

Question 32

• When the stress has abated..

Answer 32

feedback loops initiate an automatic turn off

Question 33

Stress affects the brain negatively.. how?

Answer 33

• Chronic stress causes remodeling of
  dendrites and synaptic connections in many
  brain regions; in the hippocampus,
  amygdala, medial prefrontal and
  orbitofrontal cortices
• These areas control the cortisol
  production (off-button) which is now
  reduced: circulatory

Question 34

Criticism onn the general adaptation syndrome

Answer 34

Criticism: The physiological response can differ depending on the
type of stressor (specific response)

Question 35

transient events

Answer 35

*acute time-limiting stressors
*traumatic events
*(major) life events (e.g., death of a close family member) –> Life
events theory (Holmes & Rahe, 1967)

Question 36

• Primary appraisal (perceived demands):
  personal meaning of an event, consideration of quality & nature
  of event:
  3 types of stressors:

Answer 36

• harm-loss(damage that already occured)
• threat(future harm/loss)
• challenge (demands appraised as opportunitiesfor personal growth)

Question 37

• Secondary appraisal (resources)

Answer 37

personal belief of capacity to reduce the stressor, consideration
of resources (internal and external) and coping potential

Question 38

Criticism of Lazarus’s framework

Answer 38

Perceived demands (primary appraisal) versus
coping resources (secondary appraisal):
* How do these concepts interact (circulatory)?
* Are these separate concepts?
* Are they both necessary or can one concept
explain health or illness outcomes?
* Do resources need to outweigh demands

Question 39

Basal psychological factors that determine effect of
stress on body:

Answer 39

• Adversity (nature of threat)
• Uncontrollability &
  Unpredictabilty
• Duration

Question 40

ADVERSITY:
TYPES OF THREAT

Answer 40

Physical: direct threat by
- physical integrity by e.g. cold, heat, toxins, infections, (via immune
system), bleeding, violence (predators or intra-species), hunger, thirst,
exhaustion, sleep deprivation
Psychological: perceived threat of :
- physical integrity by physical adversity; see above
or
- psychological integrity: i.a. security/safety;
belongingness/intimacy/sex; autonomy/prestige; (only humans: ‘self
actualisation’)
NB: for humans threat = often social: expulsion/social exclusion

Question 41

stress appraisal

Answer 41

A study by Keller et al (2012) indicated
that individuals reporting both a high
amount of stress and the perception that
stress affects their health are at a greater
risk of premature mortality.
These findings support the notion that
stress appraisal is critical in
determining outcomes (Lazarus &
Folkman, 1984).

Question 42

Coping: Style vs. Strategy

Answer 42

Style – trait; unspecific to
stressor/context
* approach problems, seek
out threat relevant
information, or
* avoid or distract
themselves from threatrelevant information
Strategy – varies according
to event/context
* Situation-specific coping
varies to context, the
stressor, and the person’s
personality, mood, etc.
* Coping may include
opposite strategies i.e.
passive coping and
problem-focused coping

Question 43

Emotional disclosure

Answer 43

(e.g., short writing about feelings) is a
possible moderator of coping (Pennebaker)
* Long-term benefits of reduced stress of low-cost easy
intervention
However, venting negative emotions (part of expressed emotion)
is sometimes associated with poorer prog

Question 44

oxytocin

Answer 44

affects social bonding processes and stress regulation
dependent on aspects of context and interindividual factors.