Chapter 1 - Introduction to Anatomy Flashcards
1
Q
each region is studied separately and all aspects of that region are covered at the same time
A
regional approach
2
Q
each system is studied separately and followed throughout the body
A
systemic approach
3
Q
what are the planes of the body?
A
coronal, sagittal, and transverse planes
4
Q
what are the positions of the body?
A
Anterior (ventral), posterior (dorsal), medial, lateral, superior, inferior, proximal, distal, cranial (toward the head), caudal (towards the tail), and rostral (towards the nose)
5
Q
what is anatomical position?
A
face looking forward hands by sides palms forward feet together toes forward
6
Q
closest to the outside of the skin
A
superficial
7
Q
what are the two subgroups of the skeletal system?
A
axial
appendicular
8
Q
includes the skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum
A
axial subgroup
9
Q
includes shoulder girdle and upper limb, pelvic girdle and lower limb
A
appendicular subgroup
10
Q
consists of bone and cartilage
A
skeletal system
11
Q
avascular connective tissue that supports soft tissues, provides smooth gliding surfaces for joints, and allow bone growth
A
cartilage
12
Q
what are the 3 types of cartilage?
A
hyaline (most common), elastic (external ear), fibrocartilage (intervertebral discs)
13
Q
a calcified living connective tissue that: supports body structures, protects vital organs, stores calcium and phosphorous, levers for muscles, contains blood-producing cells
A
bone
14
Q
what are the two types of bone?
A
compact
spongy
15
Q
dense and forms the outer shell of all bones and surrounds spongy bone
A
compact bone
16
Q
spicules enclosing cavities containing blood-forming cells
A
spongy bone
17
Q
how are bones classified based on shape?
A
- Long bones- e.g. humerus in upper limb
- Short bones- cuboidal (e.g. bones of wrist)
- Flat bones- 2 compact bone plates separated by spongy bone (skull)
- irregular bones- bones of various shapes (e.g. face bones)
- Sesamoid bones- round or oval that develop in tendons (patellar)
18
Q
Do bones have a blood supply and are they innervated?
A
Bones are vascular and innervated by a nerve
19
Q
how does blood and nerves enter bone?
A
Nutrient arteries and nerves (vasometers) enter the internal cavity
20
Q
what are bones covered in?
A
a fibrous tissue membrane called a periosteum
21
Q
what is the periosteum innervated by?
A
sensory nerve fibers ( e.g. pain)
22
Q
sites where 2 skeletal elements come together
A
joints
23
Q
what are the two types of joints?
A
synovial
solid
24
Q
- skeletal elements separated by a cavity
- Two ends of the bones wrapped in joint capsule (ball of tissue)
- Cavity between two bones, which has synovial fluid
- Plenty of movement
- easier to dislocate
- examples: knees, elbows, hip, ankle
A
synovial joint
25
* no cavity, elements held together by connective tissue
* ligament or cartilage (teeth)
* little to no movement
solid joints
26
What are the parts of a synovial joint?
* Hyaline cartilage
* joint capsule
* tendons
* articular discs (fibrocartilage)
* fat pads
27
* covers articulating surfaces
| * prevents bone grinding; slippery
hyaline cartilage
28
* consists of synovial and fibrous
| * synovial is innermost layer
joint capsule
29
absorb compression forces, adjust to change in joint contours, and increase range of movement
Articular discs (fibrocartilage)
30
* usually occur between the synovial membrane and capsule and move in and out of joint contours as joint moves
* slip and slide out of joint as it moves
fat pads
31
Based on shape of articular surfaces, what do synovial joints include?
```
plane (flat)
hinge
pivot
bicondylar (2 sets of contact points- knee), condylar (ellipsoid, wrist)
saddle (thumb)
ball and socket (shoulder and hip)
```
32
Based on movement of synovial joints, what are they broken down into?
uniaxial, (movement in one plane) - elbow
biaxial (movement in 2 planes) - wrist
multiaxial (movement in 3 planes) - shoulder
33
what are the specific types of synovial joints?
```
plane
hinge
pivot
bicondylar
condylar
saddle
ball and socket
```
34
* synovial joint
| * allow sliding or gliding of 1 bone across surface of another (acromioclavicular)
plane
35
* synovial joint
| * movement around 1 axis that passes transversely through the joint (elbow)
hinge
36
* synovial joint
| * movement around axis that passes longitudinally through shaft of bone (atlanto-axial joint)
pivot
37
* synovial joint
| * movement in mostly 1 axis with limited rotation around a second (knee joint)
bicondylar
38
* synovial joint
| * movement around 2 axes that are at right angles to each other (wrist)
Condylar (ellipsoid)
39
* synovial joint
* movement around 2 axes that are at right angles (similar to condylar but allows more circumduction) (carpometacarpal joint of thumb)
saddle joint
40
* synovial joint
| * movement around multiple axes (hip joint)
ball and socket joint
41
* connections between skeletal elements linked together by fibrous connective tissue
* don't move much
solid joints
42
what are the two types of solid joints?
fibrous
| cartilaginous
43
what are fibrous joints?
sutures
gomphoses
syndesmoses
44
between the skull bones
sutures
45
between teeth and bone
gomphoses
46
bones connected by a ligament (interosseous membrane)
syndesmoses
47
what do cartilaginous joints include?
synchondroses
| symphyses
48
where ossification centers remain separated by a layer of cartilage (growth plates in long bones)
Synchondroses
49
* 2 bones interconnected by cartilage (pubic symphysis)
| * Symphyses can move under certain circumstances giving birth
Symphyses
50
way of transferring forces between the bones
Interosseous membrane
51
the largest organ in the body and provides mechanical and permeability barriers, sensory and thermoregulatory functions, and may initiate immune response
skin
52
what are the layers of the skin?
epidermis
| dermis
53
avascular epithelial tissue
| outermost layer of skin
epidermis
54
* deeper layer of skin
| * vascularized connective tissue
dermis
55
* connective tissue that separates, supports, interconnects structures, enable movement of 1 structure relative to another, and transit for nerves and vessels
* holds stuff in place; like spider web looking stuff
fascia
56
what are the two general categories of skin/fascia?
superficial
| deep
57
just deep and attached to the dermis, allows movement of skin over deeper areas, conduit for vessels and nerves, and fat store
Superficial (subcutaneous)
58
outer layer is attached to superficial fascia, inward extensions form intermuscular septa (compartmentalization), near joints form retinacula which hold down tendons and prevent bowing when joints move
deep
59
separates parietal peritoneum from deep surface of muscles of abdominal wall
Deep- extraperitoneal
60
separates similar layer in the thorax (chest)
Deep- endothoracic
61
holds tendons against the skeleton
retinacula
62
made of skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle
muscular system
63
* striated and voluntary
* Most of our muscle tissue, innervated by somatic and branchial motor nerves (cranial nerves)
* Moves skeleton at joints, holds body up (posture)
skeletal muscle
64
* striated and involuntary
* Found in walls of heart (myocardium) and large vessels close to heart
* Less powerful contractions than skeletal but fatigue resistant
* Innervated by visceral motor nerves
cardiac muscle
65
develops from different place in the embryo than branchial motor nerves
somatic nerve
66
* non-striated and involuntary
* Found in walls of blood vessels, hair follicles, eyeball, walls of gastrointestinal, respiratory, genitourinary/urogenital systems
* Innervated by visceral motor nerves
smooth muscle
67
consists of the heart and blood vessels
cardiovascular system
68
* take blood away from the heart
| * Arteries are rubbery and bounce back
arteries
69
take blood to the heart
| *veins are like paper and are flat and collapse
veins
70
connect arteries to veins, smallest blood vessels, site of nutrient, oxygen, and waste exchange with tissues
capillaries
71
what are the 3 layers of the walls of blood vessels?
tunica externa
tunica media
tunica intima
72
outer connective tissue layer
tunica externa
73
middle smooth muscle layer
tunica media
74
inner endothelial lining of blood vessels
tunica intima
75
What are the groups of arteries?
larger elastic
medium muscular
small arteries and arterioles
76
larger vessels with substantial amounts of elastic fiber allowing expansion and recoil (e.g. aorta, brachiocephalic, etc.)
larger elastic
77
tunica media contains mostly smooth muscle (allows regulation of diameter) (e.g. femoral, axillary, etc.)
medium muscular
78
control filling of capillaries and contribute to arterial pressure
Small arteries and arterioles-
79
What are the classes of veins?
large veins
small and medium veins
venules
80
* contain some smooth muscle in tunica media
| * Tunica externa is the thickest (e.g. vena cava and portal vein)
large veins
81
contain small amounts of smooth muscle
small and medium veins
82
smallest veins that drain capillaries
venules
83
what are the differences between veins and arteries?
* Walls of veins (especially tunica media) are thin
* Veins lumen diameter is large
* Often have multiple veins associated with arteries in periphery
* Veins have valves in periphery/inferior to the heart
84
**vessels begin as porous, blind ended capillaries in tissues that converge to form larger vessels; Eventually draining into veins in the neck
**collect fluid (lymph) lost from vascular capillary beds during nutrient exchange
lymphatic vessels
85
contains pathogens, cells of the lymphocytic system, cell products (e.g. hormones), and cell debris
lymph
86
small encapsulated structures that interrupt lymphatic vessels. Contain lymphocytes and macrophages. Immune system defense
lymph nodes
87
true or false: the lymphatic system has a beginning and an end
true
88
Suck-up waste, pathogens, hormones, excess fluid “trash collector”
lymphatic system
89
what are the various lymph nodes in our body?
* cervical nodes
* axillary nodes
* deep nodes
* pericranial ring
* tracheal nodes
* inguinal nodes
* femoral nodes
90
what is the lymphatic system a major route for?
fat transport
91
fluid carried from the small intestine to
| opaque and milky
chyle
92
these drain into lymphatic capillaries (lacteals in the small intestine) and eventually into the venous system
chylomicrons
93
The small intestine absorbs certain fats which are packaged into....
chylomicrons
94
what do all lymphatic vessels form?
All lymphatic vessels coalesce to form larger trunks or ducts that drain into the venous system at sites in the neck
95
where does lymph drain?
**Lymph from the right side of head, neck, right upper arm, right side of thorax, right upper and more superficial abdomen drain into veins on the right side of the neck
*Lymph from everywhere else drains into veins on the left side of the neck
96
true or false: the lymphatic system is symmetrical
false
97
what are the two parts of the nervous system based on structure?
CNS
| PNS
98
consists of the brain and spinal cord
CNS
99
consists of nerve structures outside the CNS
PNS
100
What are the two parts of the nervous system based on function?
somatic
| visceral
101
innervates skin and most skeletal muscle (developmentally derived from somites)
somatic
102
innervates visceral organ systems and glands
visceral
103
what is the brain made of?
cerebral hemispheres
cerebellum
brainstem
104
what do the cerebral hemispheres consist of?
of an outer layer of gray matter (containing cell bodies) and an inner layer of white matter (axons forming tracts/pathways)
105
what are the cavities in cerebral hemispheres called and what are they filled with?
called ventricles
| filled with CSF
106
what is the brainstem made of?
midbrain
pons
medulla
107
hangs off the back of the brain
cerebellum
108
ties into the spinal cord
brainstem
109
allows for higher level of thinking
gray matter
110
"wires" connecting the different parts of the brain
white matter
111
keeps the brain happy in terms of chemistry
CSF - cerebrospinal fluid
112
what are the 3 layers of protective connective tissue that cover the brain?
dura mater
arachnoid mater
pia mater
113
thickest and most external
dura mater
114
against internal surface of dura mater
arachnoid mater
115
pia mater
innermost layer, on surface of the brain
116
carry conscious sensations from periphery back to CNS and innervate skeletal muscle (voluntary muscle)
somatic nerves
117
where do somatic nerves arise from?
Developmentally nerves arise from dermatomyotomes within somites
118
**segments found along the developing CNS in the embryo
**chunks of tissue that are on either side of the neural tube
somites
119
where do cells within the dermatomyotomes migrate to as they develop?
they migrate anteriorly and posteriorly of developing body
120
what do the cells that migrate from the dermatomyotomes form?
**Forming hypaxial muscle (muscles on anterior side of body)
**epaxial muscle (muscles on posterior side of body/back muscles
121
what do developing nerve cells in the neural tube and neural crest do?
extend processes that eventually become motor and sensory neurons
122
what does the neural tube become?
spinal cord and brain
123
what does the neural crest become?
nerves and face bones invertebrates
124
what do dermatomyotimes become?
muscle and skin
125
Neurons that develop from within neural tube
motor neurons
126
Neurons that develop from within neural crest
sensory neurons
127
what do developing cells in the neural tube extend?
tube extend processes peripherally into posterior and anterior regions of the dermatomyotome of each somite
128
what do neural crest cells differentiate into?
cells differentiate in to nerve cells and extend processes both medially and laterally
129
where do the medial processes pass into?
posterior aspect of neural tube
130
where do the lateral processes pass into?
dermatomyotome
131
what becomes spinal nerves?
Somatic sensory and motor neurons that are organized along the embryo segmentally
132
what becomes sensory ganglia located outside the CNS?
Clusters of sensory nerve cell bodies derived from neural crest
133
what does sensory information pass into?
posterior aspect of the spinal cord
134
where do motor fibers leave through?
the anterior aspect of the spinal cord
135
* *linked to spinal cord and they are linked to each other
| * *house the cell bodies of the sensory neurons
ganglia
136
nerve fibers that are taking action potential away from CNS
efferents
137
take action potentials towards CNS
afferents
138
enter CNS through somatic sensory afferents or general somatic afferents (GSA’s)
somatic sensory neurons that carry sensory information
139
what are these sensory neurons carrying?
information about temp, pain, touch, and proprioception
140
why does each spinal nerve innervate a dermatome?
Because cells from a specific somite develop into the skin at specific location
141
carry information away from CNS to skeletal muscles
somatic motor fibers
142
why is each spinal nerve associated with a specific myotome?
Because each somatic motor nerve is associate with a specific somite
143
what does the visceral part of the nervous system consist of?
motor and sensory parts
144
what do sensory nerves monitor?
changes in viscera
145
mainly innervate smooth and cardiac muscle and glands
motor nerves
146
* referred to as the autonomic division of the PNS and is subdivided
* subdivided into sympathetic and parasympathetic
visceral motor nerves
147
fight or flight
sympathetic
148
rest and digest
parasympathetic
149
*leave spinal cord and tell organs/body parts what to do
visceral motor nerves
150
arise from neural crest cells and send processes medially into neural tube and laterally into parts of developing body
Visceral sensory neurons (general visceral afferent fibers (GVA’s))
151
arise from cells in neural tube and send processes anteriorly to synapse with other visceral motor neurons that developed outside the CNS
Visceral motor neurons (general visceral efferent fibers (GVE’s))
152
Visceral motor neurons that developed within CNS
preganglionic fibers
153
Visceral motor neurons that developed outside CNS
postganglionic fibers
154
how do visceral sensory and motor fibers leave and enter?
enter and leave the spinal cord with their somatic equivalents
155
How do visceral and somatic sensory fibers enter the CNS?
visceral & somatic sensory fibers enter the CNS through posterior roots
156
how do visceral and somatic motor fibers enter the CNS?
visceral & somatic motor fibers enter CNS through anterior roots
157
do visceral motor and sensory fibers enter and leave the CNS at all levels?
no
158
what are the visceral components associated with in the cranial region?
associated with 4 of the 12 cranial nerves
159
what are the visceral components associated with in the spinal cord?
associated with mainly spinal nerves (T1-L2)
160
Visceral components associated with T1-L2 are termed ......
sympathetic
161
Visceral components associated with cranial and sacral regions are.....
parasympathetic
162
leaves thoracolumbar regions of spinal cord with somatic components of spinal nerves T1 to L2
Sympathetic part of autonomic system of PNS
163
where does the paravertebral trunk extend to?
On each side of the spinal cord, the paravertebral trunk extends from skull to inferior end of vertebral column
164
how do the spinal nerve fibers connect to the paravertebral sympathetic trunk?
anterior rami
165
where do preganglionic fibers synapse with postganglionic motor neurons?
in ganglia on the sympathetic trunk
166
how do anterior rami connect to ganglia?
via gray and white ramus communicans
167
what do post ganglionic fibers enter before being distributed?
Post ganglionic fibers enter same anterior rami before being distributed anteriorly and posteriorly at the same level
168
which is smaller, posterior rami or anterior rami?
Posterior rami is smaller than anterior because anterior has a lot more traffic
169
where do preganglionic sympathetic fibers go to and what do they do?
ascend or descend to other vertebral levels where they synapse in ganglia associated with spinal nerves
170
leave ganglia through gray ramus communicans and enter posterior and anterior rami of spinal nerves
post ganglionic fibers
171
what do ascending and descending fibers and ganglia form?
paravertebral trunk
172
what does the paravertebral trunk allow for?
allows for sympathetic autonomic division of PNS to emerge only between T1 and L2 but be distributed to periphery
173
where can preganglionic fibers synapse with postganglionic motor neurons? Where do they go to?
Preganglionic fibers may synapse with postganglionic motor neurons in ganglia and then leave ganglia medially to innervate thoracic or cervical viscera
174
where can preganglionic fibers go to before synapsing?
They may ascend in the trunk to different levels before synapsing with ganglia
175
what do the postganglionic fibers do after synapsing?
postganglionic fibers may combine with those from other levels to form visceral nerves
176
often join parasympathetic nerves to form plexuses on or near the organ (branches of the plexus innervate the organ)
visceral nerves
177
synapse with the large prevertebral plexus
splanchnic nerves
178
extend off the large prevertebral plexus
Postganglionic fibers
179
pass through paravertebral ganglia w/o synapsing and with similar fibers from other levels for splanchnic nerves (T5-L2)
preganglionic fibers
180
these are found in the plexus
postganglionic nerves
181
travel through the splanchnic nerves
preganglionic nerves
182
* *Leaves cranial and sacral regions of CNS associated with cranial nerves and sacral nerves
* *Very limited area in which you can send the fibers out
* *Have bunch of plexuses and ganglia that are far from the CNS
* *Preganglionic fibers are long fibers and travel a long way; very few/short postganglionic fibers and close to target cells/tissues
parasympathetic system
183
**leave sacral region through pelvic splanchnic nerve and enter pelvic region of prevertebral plexus
**continue on to the viscera
preganglionic fibers of the parasympathetic system
184
are in the walls of target viscera
postganglionic motor fibers (parasympathetic system)
185
don't have postganglionic fibers (parasympathetic)
gastrointestinal organs
186
* generally accompany visceral motor fibers
| * one fiber going from guts, back to CNS; shooting back down a single neuron
visceral sensory fibers
187
separate from the nerve and connect to 1 of 4 ganglia which house post ganglionic motor fibers
Cranial preganglionic sympathetic in cranial nerves (CN) III, VII, IX
188
exit ganglia and join branches of CN V and innervate target tissues
post ganglionic fibers (parasympathetic)
189
gives rise to visceral branches that synapse with thoracic viscera or the paravertebral plexus
CN X
190
Consists of motor and sensory neurons that form 2 interconnecting plexuses in the gastrointestinal tract
enteric system
191
what are the 2 plexuses of the enteric system?
myenteric nerve plexus
| submucous nerve plexus
192
Formed by ganglia with nerve cell bodies, associated cells, and bundles of nerve fibers which pass between ganglia
enteric system and/or nerve plexus
193
control reflexes associated with peristalsis, secretomotor activity and tone
sensory and motor neurons
194
Can function independently of CNS
enteric system
195
either somatic or visceral and combine fibers from different sources or levels to form new nerves with specific destinations
nerve plexuses
196
what are some major somatic plexuses?
cervical, brachial, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal
197
usually form with viscera and contain efferent (sympathetic and parasympathetic) and afferent components
visceral plexuses
198
what are the major visceral plexuses?
cardiac, pulmonary, and paravertebral
