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Human Anatomy > Chapter 1 - Introduction to Anatomy > Flashcards

Chapter 1 - Introduction to Anatomy Flashcards

1
Q

each region is studied separately and all aspects of that region are covered at the same time

A

regional approach

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2
Q

each system is studied separately and followed throughout the body

A

systemic approach

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3
Q

what are the planes of the body?

A

coronal, sagittal, and transverse planes

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4
Q

what are the positions of the body?

A

Anterior (ventral), posterior (dorsal), medial, lateral, superior, inferior, proximal, distal, cranial (toward the head), caudal (towards the tail), and rostral (towards the nose)

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5
Q

what is anatomical position?

A 
face looking forward
hands by sides
palms forward
feet together 
toes forward
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6
Q

closest to the outside of the skin

A

superficial

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7
Q

what are the two subgroups of the skeletal system?

A

axial

appendicular

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8
Q

includes the skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum

A

axial subgroup

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9
Q

includes shoulder girdle and upper limb, pelvic girdle and lower limb

A

appendicular subgroup

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10
Q

consists of bone and cartilage

A

skeletal system

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11
Q

avascular connective tissue that supports soft tissues, provides smooth gliding surfaces for joints, and allow bone growth

A

cartilage

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12
Q

what are the 3 types of cartilage?

A

hyaline (most common), elastic (external ear), fibrocartilage (intervertebral discs)

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13
Q

a calcified living connective tissue that: supports body structures, protects vital organs, stores calcium and phosphorous, levers for muscles, contains blood-producing cells

A

bone

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14
Q

what are the two types of bone?

A

compact

spongy

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15
Q

dense and forms the outer shell of all bones and surrounds spongy bone

A

compact bone

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16
Q

spicules enclosing cavities containing blood-forming cells

A

spongy bone

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17
Q

how are bones classified based on shape?

A
  • Long bones- e.g. humerus in upper limb
  • Short bones- cuboidal (e.g. bones of wrist)
  • Flat bones- 2 compact bone plates separated by spongy bone (skull)
  • irregular bones- bones of various shapes (e.g. face bones)
  • Sesamoid bones- round or oval that develop in tendons (patellar)
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18
Q

Do bones have a blood supply and are they innervated?

A

Bones are vascular and innervated by a nerve

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19
Q

how does blood and nerves enter bone?

A

Nutrient arteries and nerves (vasometers) enter the internal cavity

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20
Q

what are bones covered in?

A

a fibrous tissue membrane called a periosteum

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21
Q

what is the periosteum innervated by?

A

sensory nerve fibers ( e.g. pain)

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22
Q

sites where 2 skeletal elements come together

A

joints

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23
Q

what are the two types of joints?

A

synovial

solid

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24
Q
  • skeletal elements separated by a cavity
  • Two ends of the bones wrapped in joint capsule (ball of tissue)
  • Cavity between two bones, which has synovial fluid
  • Plenty of movement
  • easier to dislocate
  • examples: knees, elbows, hip, ankle
A

synovial joint

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25
Q
  • no cavity, elements held together by connective tissue
  • ligament or cartilage (teeth)
  • little to no movement
A

solid joints

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26
Q

What are the parts of a synovial joint?

A
  • Hyaline cartilage
  • joint capsule
  • tendons
  • articular discs (fibrocartilage)
  • fat pads
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27
Q
  • covers articulating surfaces

* prevents bone grinding; slippery

A

hyaline cartilage

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28
Q
  • consists of synovial and fibrous

* synovial is innermost layer

A

joint capsule

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29
Q

absorb compression forces, adjust to change in joint contours, and increase range of movement

A

Articular discs (fibrocartilage)

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30
Q
  • usually occur between the synovial membrane and capsule and move in and out of joint contours as joint moves
  • slip and slide out of joint as it moves
A

fat pads

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31
Q

Based on shape of articular surfaces, what do synovial joints include?

A 
plane (flat)
hinge
pivot
bicondylar (2 sets of contact points- knee), condylar (ellipsoid, wrist)
saddle (thumb) 
ball and socket (shoulder and hip)
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32
Q

Based on movement of synovial joints, what are they broken down into?

A

uniaxial, (movement in one plane) - elbow
biaxial (movement in 2 planes) - wrist
multiaxial (movement in 3 planes) - shoulder

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33
Q

what are the specific types of synovial joints?

A 
plane
hinge
pivot
bicondylar
condylar
saddle
ball and socket
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34
Q
  • synovial joint

* allow sliding or gliding of 1 bone across surface of another (acromioclavicular)

A

plane

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35
Q
  • synovial joint

* movement around 1 axis that passes transversely through the joint (elbow)

A

hinge

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36
Q
  • synovial joint

* movement around axis that passes longitudinally through shaft of bone (atlanto-axial joint)

A

pivot

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37
Q
  • synovial joint

* movement in mostly 1 axis with limited rotation around a second (knee joint)

A

bicondylar

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38
Q
  • synovial joint

* movement around 2 axes that are at right angles to each other (wrist)

A

Condylar (ellipsoid)

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39
Q
  • synovial joint
  • movement around 2 axes that are at right angles (similar to condylar but allows more circumduction) (carpometacarpal joint of thumb)
A

saddle joint

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40
Q
  • synovial joint

* movement around multiple axes (hip joint)

A

ball and socket joint

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41
Q
  • connections between skeletal elements linked together by fibrous connective tissue
  • don’t move much
A

solid joints

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42
Q

what are the two types of solid joints?

A

fibrous

cartilaginous

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43
Q

what are fibrous joints?

A

sutures
gomphoses
syndesmoses

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44
Q

between the skull bones

A

sutures

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45
Q

between teeth and bone

A

gomphoses

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46
Q

bones connected by a ligament (interosseous membrane)

A

syndesmoses

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47
Q

what do cartilaginous joints include?

A

synchondroses

symphyses

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48
Q

where ossification centers remain separated by a layer of cartilage (growth plates in long bones)

A

Synchondroses

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49
Q
  • 2 bones interconnected by cartilage (pubic symphysis)

* Symphyses can move under certain circumstances  giving birth

A

Symphyses

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50
Q

way of transferring forces between the bones

A

Interosseous membrane

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51
Q

the largest organ in the body and provides mechanical and permeability barriers, sensory and thermoregulatory functions, and may initiate immune response

A

skin

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52
Q

what are the layers of the skin?

A

epidermis

dermis

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53
Q

avascular epithelial tissue

outermost layer of skin

A

epidermis

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54
Q
  • deeper layer of skin

* vascularized connective tissue

A

dermis

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55
Q
  • connective tissue that separates, supports, interconnects structures, enable movement of 1 structure relative to another, and transit for nerves and vessels
  • holds stuff in place; like spider web looking stuff
A

fascia

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56
Q

what are the two general categories of skin/fascia?

A

superficial

deep

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57
Q

just deep and attached to the dermis, allows movement of skin over deeper areas, conduit for vessels and nerves, and fat store

A

Superficial (subcutaneous)

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58
Q

outer layer is attached to superficial fascia, inward extensions form intermuscular septa (compartmentalization), near joints form retinacula which hold down tendons and prevent bowing when joints move

A

deep

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59
Q

separates parietal peritoneum from deep surface of muscles of abdominal wall

A

Deep- extraperitoneal

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60
Q

separates similar layer in the thorax (chest)

A

Deep- endothoracic

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61
Q

holds tendons against the skeleton

A

retinacula

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62
Q

made of skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle

A

muscular system

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63
Q
  • striated and voluntary
  • Most of our muscle tissue, innervated by somatic and branchial motor nerves (cranial nerves)
  • Moves skeleton at joints, holds body up (posture)
A

skeletal muscle

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64
Q
  • striated and involuntary
  • Found in walls of heart (myocardium) and large vessels close to heart
  • Less powerful contractions than skeletal but fatigue resistant
  • Innervated by visceral motor nerves
A

cardiac muscle

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65
Q

develops from different place in the embryo than branchial motor nerves

A

somatic nerve

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66
Q
  • non-striated and involuntary
  • Found in walls of blood vessels, hair follicles, eyeball, walls of gastrointestinal, respiratory, genitourinary/urogenital systems
  • Innervated by visceral motor nerves
A

smooth muscle

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67
Q

consists of the heart and blood vessels

A

cardiovascular system

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68
Q
  • take blood away from the heart

* Arteries are rubbery and bounce back

A

arteries

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69
Q

take blood to the heart

*veins are like paper and are flat and collapse

A

veins

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70
Q

connect arteries to veins, smallest blood vessels, site of nutrient, oxygen, and waste exchange with tissues

A

capillaries

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71
Q

what are the 3 layers of the walls of blood vessels?

A

tunica externa
tunica media
tunica intima

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72
Q

outer connective tissue layer

A

tunica externa

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73
Q

middle smooth muscle layer

A

tunica media

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74
Q

inner endothelial lining of blood vessels

A

tunica intima

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75
Q

What are the groups of arteries?

A

larger elastic
medium muscular
small arteries and arterioles

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76
Q

larger vessels with substantial amounts of elastic fiber allowing expansion and recoil (e.g. aorta, brachiocephalic, etc.)

A

larger elastic

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77
Q

tunica media contains mostly smooth muscle (allows regulation of diameter) (e.g. femoral, axillary, etc.)

A

medium muscular

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78
Q

control filling of capillaries and contribute to arterial pressure

A

Small arteries and arterioles-

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79
Q

What are the classes of veins?

A

large veins
small and medium veins
venules

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80
Q
  • contain some smooth muscle in tunica media

* Tunica externa is the thickest (e.g. vena cava and portal vein)

A

large veins

81
Q

contain small amounts of smooth muscle

A

small and medium veins

82
Q

smallest veins that drain capillaries

A

venules

83
Q

what are the differences between veins and arteries?

A
  • Walls of veins (especially tunica media) are thin
  • Veins lumen diameter is large
  • Often have multiple veins associated with arteries in periphery
  • Veins have valves in periphery/inferior to the heart
84
Q

**vessels begin as porous, blind ended capillaries in tissues that converge to form larger vessels; Eventually draining into veins in the neck

**collect fluid (lymph) lost from vascular capillary beds during nutrient exchange

A

lymphatic vessels

85
Q

contains pathogens, cells of the lymphocytic system, cell products (e.g. hormones), and cell debris

A

lymph

86
Q

small encapsulated structures that interrupt lymphatic vessels. Contain lymphocytes and macrophages. Immune system defense

A

lymph nodes

87
Q

true or false: the lymphatic system has a beginning and an end

A

true

88
Q

Suck-up waste, pathogens, hormones, excess fluid  “trash collector”

A

lymphatic system

89
Q

what are the various lymph nodes in our body?

A
  • cervical nodes
  • axillary nodes
  • deep nodes
  • pericranial ring
  • tracheal nodes
  • inguinal nodes
  • femoral nodes
90
Q

what is the lymphatic system a major route for?

A

fat transport

91
Q

fluid carried from the small intestine to

opaque and milky

A

chyle

92
Q

these drain into lymphatic capillaries (lacteals in the small intestine) and eventually into the venous system

A

chylomicrons

93
Q

The small intestine absorbs certain fats which are packaged into….

A

chylomicrons

94
Q

what do all lymphatic vessels form?

A

All lymphatic vessels coalesce to form larger trunks or ducts that drain into the venous system at sites in the neck

95
Q

where does lymph drain?

A

**Lymph from the right side of head, neck, right upper arm, right side of thorax, right upper and more superficial abdomen drain into veins on the right side of the neck

*Lymph from everywhere else drains into veins on the left side of the neck

96
Q

true or false: the lymphatic system is symmetrical

A

false

97
Q

what are the two parts of the nervous system based on structure?

A

CNS

PNS

98
Q

consists of the brain and spinal cord

A

CNS

99
Q

consists of nerve structures outside the CNS

A

PNS

100
Q

What are the two parts of the nervous system based on function?

A

somatic

visceral

101
Q

innervates skin and most skeletal muscle (developmentally derived from somites)

A

somatic

102
Q

innervates visceral organ systems and glands

A

visceral

103
Q

what is the brain made of?

A

cerebral hemispheres
cerebellum
brainstem

104
Q

what do the cerebral hemispheres consist of?

A

of an outer layer of gray matter (containing cell bodies) and an inner layer of white matter (axons forming tracts/pathways)

105
Q

what are the cavities in cerebral hemispheres called and what are they filled with?

A

called ventricles

filled with CSF

106
Q

what is the brainstem made of?

A

midbrain
pons
medulla

107
Q

hangs off the back of the brain

A

cerebellum

108
Q

ties into the spinal cord

A

brainstem

109
Q

allows for higher level of thinking

A

gray matter

110
Q

“wires” connecting the different parts of the brain

A

white matter

111
Q

keeps the brain happy in terms of chemistry

A

CSF - cerebrospinal fluid

112
Q

what are the 3 layers of protective connective tissue that cover the brain?

A

dura mater
arachnoid mater
pia mater

113
Q

thickest and most external

A

dura mater

114
Q

against internal surface of dura mater

A

arachnoid mater

115
Q

pia mater

A

innermost layer, on surface of the brain

116
Q

carry conscious sensations from periphery back to CNS and innervate skeletal muscle (voluntary muscle)

A

somatic nerves

117
Q

where do somatic nerves arise from?

A

Developmentally nerves arise from dermatomyotomes within somites

118
Q

**segments found along the developing CNS in the embryo

**chunks of tissue that are on either side of the neural tube

A

somites

119
Q

where do cells within the dermatomyotomes migrate to as they develop?

A

they migrate anteriorly and posteriorly of developing body

120
Q

what do the cells that migrate from the dermatomyotomes form?

A

**Forming hypaxial muscle (muscles on anterior side of body)

**epaxial muscle (muscles on posterior side of body/back muscles

121
Q

what do developing nerve cells in the neural tube and neural crest do?

A

extend processes that eventually become motor and sensory neurons

122
Q

what does the neural tube become?

A

spinal cord and brain

123
Q

what does the neural crest become?

A

nerves and face bones invertebrates

124
Q

what do dermatomyotimes become?

A

muscle and skin

125
Q

Neurons that develop from within neural tube

A

motor neurons

126
Q

Neurons that develop from within neural crest

A

sensory neurons

127
Q

what do developing cells in the neural tube extend?

A

tube extend processes peripherally into posterior and anterior regions of the dermatomyotome of each somite

128
Q

what do neural crest cells differentiate into?

A

cells differentiate in to nerve cells and extend processes both medially and laterally

129
Q

where do the medial processes pass into?

A

posterior aspect of neural tube

130
Q

where do the lateral processes pass into?

A

dermatomyotome

131
Q

what becomes spinal nerves?

A

Somatic sensory and motor neurons that are organized along the embryo segmentally

132
Q

what becomes sensory ganglia located outside the CNS?

A

Clusters of sensory nerve cell bodies derived from neural crest

133
Q

what does sensory information pass into?

A

posterior aspect of the spinal cord

134
Q

where do motor fibers leave through?

A

the anterior aspect of the spinal cord

135
Q
  • *linked to spinal cord and they are linked to each other

* *house the cell bodies of the sensory neurons

A

ganglia

136
Q

nerve fibers that are taking action potential away from CNS

A

efferents

137
Q

take action potentials towards CNS

A

afferents

138
Q

enter CNS through somatic sensory afferents or general somatic afferents (GSA’s)

A

somatic sensory neurons that carry sensory information

139
Q

what are these sensory neurons carrying?

A

information about temp, pain, touch, and proprioception

140
Q

why does each spinal nerve innervate a dermatome?

A

Because cells from a specific somite develop into the skin at specific location

141
Q

carry information away from CNS to skeletal muscles

A

somatic motor fibers

142
Q

why is each spinal nerve associated with a specific myotome?

A

Because each somatic motor nerve is associate with a specific somite

143
Q

what does the visceral part of the nervous system consist of?

A

motor and sensory parts

144
Q

what do sensory nerves monitor?

A

changes in viscera

145
Q

mainly innervate smooth and cardiac muscle and glands

A

motor nerves

146
Q
  • referred to as the autonomic division of the PNS and is subdivided
  • subdivided into sympathetic and parasympathetic
A

visceral motor nerves

147
Q

fight or flight

A

sympathetic

148
Q

rest and digest

A

parasympathetic

149
Q

*leave spinal cord and tell organs/body parts what to do

A

visceral motor nerves

150
Q

arise from neural crest cells and send processes medially into neural tube and laterally into parts of developing body

A

Visceral sensory neurons (general visceral afferent fibers (GVA’s))

151
Q

arise from cells in neural tube and send processes anteriorly to synapse with other visceral motor neurons that developed outside the CNS

A

Visceral motor neurons (general visceral efferent fibers (GVE’s))

152
Q

Visceral motor neurons that developed within CNS

A

preganglionic fibers

153
Q

Visceral motor neurons that developed outside CNS

A

postganglionic fibers

154
Q

how do visceral sensory and motor fibers leave and enter?

A

enter and leave the spinal cord with their somatic equivalents

155
Q

How do visceral and somatic sensory fibers enter the CNS?

A

visceral & somatic sensory fibers enter the CNS through posterior roots

156
Q

how do visceral and somatic motor fibers enter the CNS?

A

visceral & somatic motor fibers enter CNS through anterior roots

157
Q

do visceral motor and sensory fibers enter and leave the CNS at all levels?

A

no

158
Q

what are the visceral components associated with in the cranial region?

A

associated with 4 of the 12 cranial nerves

159
Q

what are the visceral components associated with in the spinal cord?

A

associated with mainly spinal nerves (T1-L2)

160
Q

Visceral components associated with T1-L2 are termed ……

A

sympathetic

161
Q

Visceral components associated with cranial and sacral regions are…..

A

parasympathetic

162
Q

leaves thoracolumbar regions of spinal cord with somatic components of spinal nerves T1 to L2

A

Sympathetic part of autonomic system of PNS

163
Q

where does the paravertebral trunk extend to?

A

On each side of the spinal cord, the paravertebral trunk extends from skull to inferior end of vertebral column

164
Q

how do the spinal nerve fibers connect to the paravertebral sympathetic trunk?

A

anterior rami

165
Q

where do preganglionic fibers synapse with postganglionic motor neurons?

A

in ganglia on the sympathetic trunk

166
Q

how do anterior rami connect to ganglia?

A

via gray and white ramus communicans

167
Q

what do post ganglionic fibers enter before being distributed?

A

Post ganglionic fibers enter same anterior rami before being distributed anteriorly and posteriorly at the same level

168
Q

which is smaller, posterior rami or anterior rami?

A

Posterior rami is smaller than anterior because anterior has a lot more traffic

169
Q

where do preganglionic sympathetic fibers go to and what do they do?

A

ascend or descend to other vertebral levels where they synapse in ganglia associated with spinal nerves

170
Q

leave ganglia through gray ramus communicans and enter posterior and anterior rami of spinal nerves

A

post ganglionic fibers

171
Q

what do ascending and descending fibers and ganglia form?

A

paravertebral trunk

172
Q

what does the paravertebral trunk allow for?

A

allows for sympathetic autonomic division of PNS to emerge only between T1 and L2 but be distributed to periphery

173
Q

where can preganglionic fibers synapse with postganglionic motor neurons? Where do they go to?

A

Preganglionic fibers may synapse with postganglionic motor neurons in ganglia and then leave ganglia medially to innervate thoracic or cervical viscera

174
Q

where can preganglionic fibers go to before synapsing?

A

They may ascend in the trunk to different levels before synapsing with ganglia

175
Q

what do the postganglionic fibers do after synapsing?

A

postganglionic fibers may combine with those from other levels to form visceral nerves

176
Q

often join parasympathetic nerves to form plexuses on or near the organ (branches of the plexus innervate the organ)

A

visceral nerves

177
Q

synapse with the large prevertebral plexus

A

splanchnic nerves

178
Q

extend off the large prevertebral plexus

A

Postganglionic fibers

179
Q

pass through paravertebral ganglia w/o synapsing and with similar fibers from other levels for splanchnic nerves (T5-L2)

A

preganglionic fibers

180
Q

these are found in the plexus

A

postganglionic nerves

181
Q

travel through the splanchnic nerves

A

preganglionic nerves

182
Q
  • *Leaves cranial and sacral regions of CNS associated with cranial nerves and sacral nerves
  • *Very limited area in which you can send the fibers out
  • *Have bunch of plexuses and ganglia that are far from the CNS
  • *Preganglionic fibers are long fibers and travel a long way; very few/short postganglionic fibers and close to target cells/tissues
A

parasympathetic system

183
Q

**leave sacral region through pelvic splanchnic nerve and enter pelvic region of prevertebral plexus

**continue on to the viscera

A

preganglionic fibers of the parasympathetic system

184
Q

are in the walls of target viscera

A

postganglionic motor fibers (parasympathetic system)

185
Q

don’t have postganglionic fibers (parasympathetic)

A

gastrointestinal organs

186
Q
  • generally accompany visceral motor fibers

* one fiber going from guts, back to CNS; shooting back down a single neuron

A

visceral sensory fibers

187
Q

separate from the nerve and connect to 1 of 4 ganglia which house post ganglionic motor fibers

A

Cranial preganglionic sympathetic in cranial nerves (CN) III, VII, IX

188
Q

exit ganglia and join branches of CN V and innervate target tissues

A

post ganglionic fibers (parasympathetic)

189
Q

gives rise to visceral branches that synapse with thoracic viscera or the paravertebral plexus

A

CN X

190
Q

Consists of motor and sensory neurons that form 2 interconnecting plexuses in the gastrointestinal tract

A

enteric system

191
Q

what are the 2 plexuses of the enteric system?

A

myenteric nerve plexus

submucous nerve plexus

192
Q

Formed by ganglia with nerve cell bodies, associated cells, and bundles of nerve fibers which pass between ganglia

A

enteric system and/or nerve plexus

193
Q

control reflexes associated with peristalsis, secretomotor activity and tone

A

sensory and motor neurons

194
Q

Can function independently of CNS

A

enteric system

195
Q

either somatic or visceral and combine fibers from different sources or levels to form new nerves with specific destinations

A

nerve plexuses

196
Q

what are some major somatic plexuses?

A

cervical, brachial, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal

197
Q

usually form with viscera and contain efferent (sympathetic and parasympathetic) and afferent components

A

visceral plexuses

198
Q

what are the major visceral plexuses?

A

cardiac, pulmonary, and paravertebral

Human Anatomy (11 decks)

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