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PSYC 462 > CH4 > Flashcards

CH4 Flashcards

1
Q

Behavioural measures are crucial for understanding the ________ basis of behaviour, and drug-induced changes in that behaviour. Developing ______ _____ of psychiatric disorders, and screening newly designed drugs in _______ and ______ pharmaceutical settings

A

neurochemical, animal models, preclinical, clinical

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2
Q

used with animals and and humans to measure specific physiological, emotional, cognitive, or other psychological processes

A

test/assay

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3
Q

used to test spatial memory

A

water maze

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4
Q

used to test for anxiety

A

elevated plus maze

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5
Q

used to test for rewards

A

conditioned placed preference

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6
Q

Ideally, tests should tap into similar ______ in humans. However, you can never truly know what an animal is _____, and must infer changes in psychological states based on changes in _______. Typically, multiple tests and ____ procedures are needed to partition complex behaviours into component processes

A

functions, thinking, behaviour, control

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7
Q

entail some manipulation that causes some cellular/functional change that resembles what is observed in the disease

A

models

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8
Q

manipulation in models may mimic _______ occurring in the disease (e.g. genetic, environmental), or may be ______ (pharmacological), but still induces a similar behaviour phenotype. For more complex psychiatric disorder, it is near impossible for one model to recapitulate all aspects of the disorder and multiple models are used to re-create different ______.

A

pathophysiology, artificial, symptoms

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9
Q

seeing what causes the certain symptoms rather than the whole disorder

A

research domain criteria

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10
Q

surgical brain lesions that permit comparison about the function of a brain area

A

stereotaxic surgery

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11
Q

broad sucking up of the cortex that permanently destroys tissue

A

aspiration

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12
Q

the irreversible frying of neurons, which destroys the axon as well as cell bodies

A

radiofrequency

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13
Q

use of glutamate agonists that overexcites and selectively kills intrinsic neurons in the brain regions; does not affect axons connected to other regions; irreversible

A

excitotoxic lesion

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14
Q

intracranial infusion of a drug via a cannula to suppress neural activity by use of anaesthetics, or GABA agonists

A

reversible lesions / inactivation

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15
Q

Intracranial infusions similar to reversible lesions may be used to infuse _____ into specific brain regions to examine where a drug may act to affect ______. It only affects certain nuclei at a time to see what region is being affected

A

drug, behaviour

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16
Q

NT specific _____ can be used to identify the role of the NT in a particular behaviour. The toxin is injected directly into the______, which is taken to the ______ and destroys them. Cell bodies that do not use the specific transmitters are ____ affected

A

neurotoxin nucleus, terminals, not

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17
Q

DA, NE neurotoxin

A

6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)

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18
Q

5-HT neurotoxin

A

5.7-dihydroxytryptamine

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19
Q

electrical stimulation that produces action potentials and NT release; can be used to assess whether activation of a nucleus induces certain patterns of behaviour; usually a complementary technique to lesions

A

implanted microelectrodes

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20
Q

measures NTs released in a specific region while the subject is engaged in behaviour

A

microdialysis

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21
Q

in microdialysis, artificial _____ is pumped in through a probe implanted at precise sites in brain tissue. _____ enter the solution in the probe via diffusion. Tiny amount of fluid are pumped out of the probe and analyzed by techniques such as ________. The sample rate is _____ minutes.

A

CSF, NTs, high performance liquid chromatography, 1-2

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22
Q

used with microdialysis to separate the sample into components depending on the molecular size or ionic charge

A

high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)

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23
Q

can determine the concentration of molecules of interest

A

electrochemistry

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24
Q

When a glass tip is placed in front of the membrane and suction is applied to create a small tear so that the membrane wraps around the electrode tip

A

intracellular patch clamp

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25
Q

intracellular patch clamps allows recording of ______ _____, and changes in ____ ______ (ion flux). it provides detailed information of how drugs affect _______ ________ or ionic currents that regulate neural activity. It is measured in ____/____/_____. To use, the animal must be ____ or an in ____ brain slice preparation must be used

A

membrane potentials, electrical currents, synaptic transmission, mV, V, Amps, anaesthetized, vitro

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26
Q

When a glass or metal electrode is placed near a neuron and only action potentials are recorded

A

extracellular microelectrodes

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27
Q

With extracellular recordings, _____ cells can be recorded from at once, and this can be done in ______/_____ animals to assess changes in cell firing associated with behaviour.

A

multiple, awake, behaving

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28
Q

when a tissue sample is isolated and ground into a homogenate for analysis; often used to quantify the amount of receptors and if there are receptors there

A

soup methods

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29
Q

uses intact piece/slices of tissue to localize targets in the brain

A

slice method

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30
Q

ligands embedded in a radioactive atom (e.g. hydrogen) which can be used to index receptor binding by the amount of radioactivity in the sample, or through special photography; not the most selective

A

radioligands

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31
Q

created by injecting an antigen (e.g. receptor) into a host animal and collecting blood samples. Antibodies are tagged with coloured chemicals or fluorescent dues for visualization; harder to create, not always available

A

antibodies

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32
Q

proteins that bind to specifically targeted proteins

A

antibodies

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33
Q

When a solution containing a tissue homogenate or generic cells transfected with specific receptor is incubated with radioligand

A

radioligand binding

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34
Q

In radioligand binding, cells expressing the receptor of interest are _______ in a solution containing the radioligand. After a _____, unbound radioligand is removed and the remaining amount that is bound to the tissue is measured. It reflects the ______ of receptors in the tissue. You can use this method to identify receptors in a particular brain region by dissecting out that brain region and _______ it

A

bathed, washout, number, grinding

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35
Q

radioligand binding is also used to identify if a novel drug has some ___/_____ for a particular receptor. Only cells expressing the receptor of interest are used. A standard radioligand is combined with a _____ _____ (not radioligand), and displacement of the standard ligand at different _____ of the test are used as indexes. A wash out is needed to test how much more the test compounds ____ to the receptor. If you need a ____ concentration of test compound to bump off the standard radioligand, it is binding with stronger affinity. You can also test a drug’s affinity for different receptor ________.

A

affinity/selectivity, test compound, doses, stick, lower, subtypes

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36
Q

_____ assays can be used to look at changes in ______ activity (e.g. concentration of DA on ______ receptor stimulation, and inhibition of ______) by applying different concentrations of a drug to cells to obtain a _____ function, if there is no change in ______ of receptor at different doses of ligand while also sticking to it, it is an _____

A

agonist, enzymatic, D2, cAMP, dose-response, 2nd messenger, antagonist

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37
Q

To measure enzyme activity in _____ receptors, radioligand bind must be used, while ______ (____) measures can be used for ionotropic receptors, to assess how the drug activates ionic currents mediated by the receptor. Additionally, NTs can be used in conjunction with an ______ to measure electrical change produced by it

A

metabotropic, electrophysiology, patch clamp, allosteric modulator

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38
Q

When a radioligand is incubated with tissue slices, then exposed to film sensitive to radioactivity; used to visualize receptor distribution and requires highly selective drug

A

receptor autoradiography

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39
Q

when brain slices are fixed and incubated with an antibody; which attaches to the antigen on cells that contain it; but some antibodies may lose selectivity through adding tags

A

immunocytochemistry

40
Q

Receptor autoradiography and immunoctyochemistry work well to tell you ______ in the brain receptors are, but not to _____

A

where, quantify

41
Q

In ELISA, proteins in different _____ are placed in a plate containing the substrate. Antibodies are linked to an _____ that acts on a substrate to form a _____ ______. The _____ is proportional to the amount to antigen present. ____ amounts of a target proteins are placed in some wells, while _______ tissue from test samples are placed in others. A computer can then be used to measure the colour to _____ the protein in an unknown sample

A

concentrations, enzyme, coloured product, intensity, standard, homogenized, quantify

42
Q

a technique used to locate cells in tissue slices that manufacture a particular protein - detects specific mRNA molecules involved in the synthesis of target proteins

A

in situ hybridization

43
Q

In in situ hybridization, single stranded _____ fragments that are _____ to the mRNA of interest are labelled. The amount of mRNA gives an estimate of ____ in cells at a particular time. The advantages is that it is highly ________, easier to ______, can be used when no _____ is available, and is extremely _____. Disadvantages is that just because a cell contains mRNA, doesn’t mean the protein has been made, or inserted into the ____

A

RNA, complementary, protein, selective, analyze, antibody, sensitive, membrane

44
Q

uses injected radioactive isotopes to identify areas of brain activity (blood flow, glucose, or O2 utilization) when subject is performing certain task (measure of metabolic energy)

A

positron emission tomography (PET)

45
Q

PET has relatively low ______ resolution, as it can take up to 30 minutes for just one sample. The radioactive ligand must also be made and used _______. When combined with radiolabeled drugs that bind to NT receptors, PET can be used to study _______/_____ of those receptors in the living human brain, and _____ NT ______ by measurement of the displacement of the _______. it can also be used to index ___ NT levels. a _____ in radiotracer binding reflects an _____ in NT release. PET only works for ____, ____ and ____, and only works in places where there is high receptor and ___ levels

A

temporal, immediately, locations/concentrations, endogenous, release, radioligand, basal, decrease, increase, DA, 5-HT, GABA, NT

46
Q

measures blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) signal

A

functional MRI

47
Q

fMRI works because _____ and _____ hemoglobin have different magnetic signals. It has a better ____ and _____ resolution than PET, and can be used to measure changes in brain activity when the subject is performing certain ______, or patterns of activity across regions of ______ states

A

oxygenated, deoxygenated, temporal, spatial, task, resting

48
Q

analyzes changes in brain function following drug administration, location and time course of drug action

A

pharmacological MRI

49
Q

The BOLD signal may not reflect _____ of neurons within a brain region, rather it is reflective of ______ inputs to that region

A

firing, presynaptic

50
Q

a measure of synchronous firing in large groups of neurons; readout of how groups of neurons may alter firing near simultaneously (how different parts of the brain are working together)

A

electroencephalography (EEG)

51
Q

when characteristic waveforms in large groups of cells can be measured through the scalp due to events such as unexpected stimuli or errors

A

event related potentials (ERPs)

52
Q

EEG’s ____ resolution is better than fMRI, but has poorer _____ resolution. It is primarily used to measure _____ activity, with ____ activity being more difficult to distinguish. ERPs can be different in _____ populations, and/or can be altered by ______ drugs. This approach is being used to identify how drugs may _______ brain wave patterns

A

temporal, spatial, cortical, subcortical, psychiatric, psychoactive, normalize

53
Q

when the gene for a protein is deleted

A

knockouts

54
Q

when the original gene is removed and substituted for another

A

knockin/transgenes

55
Q

Issues with genetic alterations, is _____ for the altered gene may mask the effect of the mutation, or that because altered gene function occurs at all stages of development, changes in other brain areas may be responsible for behavioural changes

A

compensation

56
Q

selective deletion or expression of gene in only a subset of brain regions

A

conditional knockout

57
Q

a newer approach involves _______ of a gene so that it is turned on/off when a specific drug is administered

A

engineering

58
Q

used to deliver genetic material into targeted cells of interest

A

viral vectors

59
Q

insertion of genes for light sensitive ion channels/pumps into neurons

A

optogenetics

60
Q

in optogenetics, genes are inserted via _____ of engineered viral vectors into the brain region of interest. Certain viral constructs can permit greater ______ ______, for example, only expressing proteins in neurons that use a certain NT receptor, or project to a specific brain region. _____ channels expressed in neurons can be activated by light delivered via implanted optic fibers connected to laser or LED

A

infusions, cellular specificity, opsin

61
Q

opsin channels are activated when stimulated with a specific _______ of light.

A

wavelength

62
Q

excitatory opsin channels

A

channelrhodopsin

63
Q

inhibitory opsin channels

A

halorhodopsin, Arch, NpHR

64
Q

Optogenetics have great _______ specificity, as they can turn on/off a specific type of neurons for a few seconds

A

temporal

65
Q

observed in the living organism

A

in vivo

66
Q

measurements performed outside the living body

A

in vitro

67
Q

tests closely resembling tests used for humans

A

face validity

68
Q

when drug effects in the laboratory closely parallel or predict the clinical effect

A

predictive validity

69
Q

extent to which the animal measurement tool actually measures the characteristic being investigated

A

construct validity

70
Q

the injection of vehicle solution when the drug agent is absent from the treatment

A

negative control

71
Q

drug that produces well-characterized effects on a given behavioural test is tested in addition to the compound of interest; determines that the behavioural test was conducted properly and is appropriately sensitive to the pharmacological manipulation

A

positive control

72
Q

the same results recorded each time the test is used

A

reliability

73
Q

measures of motor activity

A

open field test

74
Q

measures of analgesia

A

tail flick test, hot plate test, operant analgesia testing

75
Q

reduction of perceived pain without the loss of consciousness

A

analgesia

76
Q

measure of anxiety

A

light dark crossing task, elevated plus maze, zero maze, novelty suppressed feeding, defensive burying

77
Q

measures of fear

A

conditioned emotional response, fear potentiated startle

78
Q

measures of depressive like behaviour

A

forced swim test, learned helplessness test, maternal separation, sucrose preference test

79
Q

the point at which the effort required exceeds the reinforcing value

A

breakpoint

80
Q

used to measure impulsivity

A

stop signal task

81
Q

Stereotaxically implanted microelectrodes runs small electrical potential; changes in flow of current at electrode tup reflect changes in the concentration of electroactive substance (NTs)

A

in vivo voltammetry

82
Q

_____ currents can be used to activate cells, or to record _____ electrical response to many neurons in a specific brain region following drug treatment or other manipulation

A

macroelectrode, summated

83
Q

Uses 1000-20,000 distinct complementary DNA sequences on a single chip; Can screen entire genome of an organism in a single experiment on just a few chips

A

DNA microarrays

84
Q

Either tracks the metabolic rate for nerve cell firing, or transcription factors for cell activation

A

autoradiography of dynamic cell processes

85
Q

Either tracks the metabolic rate for nerve cell firing, or transcription factors for cell activation

A

autoradiography of dynamic cell processes

86
Q

increases resolution of an x-ray and provides the image in 2D

A

computerized tomography (CT)

87
Q

computerized measurement of distinct waves that different atoms emit when placed in a strong magnetic field and activated by radiofrequency waves; Distinguishes the amount of water that magnetically induces resonance of hydrogen

A

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

88
Q

Uses MRI-generated data to calculate concentration of brain chemicals and evaluate metabolic changes

A

magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS)

89
Q

measure diffusion of water through axons and anisotropy (direction of diffusion)

A

diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)

90
Q

PET but using commercially available probes; Show changes in blood flow

A

single-photon emssion computerized tomography (SPECT)

91
Q

investigates connectivity among brain regions when the individual is awake but not engaged in a task; Can be used to compare connectivity in healthy individuals and individuals with disorders

A

Resting state fMRI

92
Q

posterior cingulate cortex, medial PFC, parietal cortex, ventral ACC

A

default mode network

93
Q

uses guide RNA to identify a specific genomic sequence to be modified, a section of DNA is cut out, then a new one is introduced

A

CRISPR

94
Q

isolating human genes and inserting them into mice to produce animal models of disorders

A

transgenic mice

95
Q

Genetically engineered receptor is stereotaxically targeted to specific brain cells then activated or suppressed by administering a ligand created to bind to inserted receptor

A

chemogenetics

PSYC 462 (16 decks)

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