CH 3 Flashcards by Hanna Song

House many of the cell bodies of neurons that use distinct NTs (DA/NE/5-HT/opioids) and send long projections that influence multiple brain regions; older brain regions; localized cell bodies

My/met/mesencephalon

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Basal ganglia: dorsal / ventral striatum, limbi system

telencephalon

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involved in motor control and action selection. most prominent nuclei include dorsal striatum (caudate/putamen) and ventral striatum (NAcc)

basal ganglia

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plays a key role in motor learning and action selection; receives input from sensory/motor cortex and DA input from substantia nigra; refines movement and promotes efficient movement and inhibits inefficient ones

dorsal striatum

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important for reward and motivated behaviours ; receives input from limbic system and DA input from the VTA

ventral striatum

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Integrates emotional responses and regulates motivated behaviour and learning (feeding, fighting, fleeing, sexual behaviour); group of neurons just under the cortex that communicate with each other

limbic system

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associated with establishment with new long-term memories and rational/spatial memory

hippocampus

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coordinates various components of emotional responses (especially fear) through profuse connections with other brain areas - detects stimuli and sends signals to other areas

amygdala

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interconnected with other structures, regulatory, feeding, sexual behaviour

hypothalamus

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receives input from amygdala and hippocampus - moves toward or away from stimulus

Nucleus accumbens

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goes down the middle of the brain

prefrontal (cingulate) cortex

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partitioning of different cortical regions based on crytoarchitecture, or histological structure and organization of cells (e.x. packing of neurons, or layers of neurons)

brodmann’s areas

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mediate voluntary and well learned motor sequences

primary/secondary motor cortex

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critical for making decisions, planning actions, evaluating different strategies; executive function, coordination of different system, form reciprocal inhibitory relationships with limbic system and striatum, organizes effective patterns of behaviour

prefrontal cortex

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All _____ regions contain receptors for numerous NT systems affected by _____ drugs. Relative concentrations of NT varies across _______. One may be affected more with a smaller _____ of drug depending on receptors and NT concentration

telecenphalon, psychoactive, regions, dose

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terminal connects with a dendrite of the postsynaptic cell; the most common type of synapse, usually connected to dendritic spines, but sometimes to dendritic shafts

axodendritic

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the closer the synapse is to the ____ _____, the more effect of ____ _______, because it doesn’t have to travel far to the axon hillock where the action potential is ______

cell body, electrical potential, generated

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axon terminal forms connections with the neuron cell body, resulting in a very powerful synapse and greater depolarization/hyperpolarization

axosomatic

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axon synapsing on another axon terminal which can either reduce or enhance NT release of receiving terminal; work via heteroreceptors

axoaxonic

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reduction of NT release of presynaptic cell to postsynaptic

presynaptic inhibition

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increase of NT release of presynaptic cell to postsynaptic

presynaptic facilitation

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receptors on axon terminals that respond to transmitters different from those released by those terminals; respond to NTs released at axoaxonic synapses

heteroreceptors

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An individual neuron can make one or several different ______, and ___ can hold one or both of them. ____ and ____ can be released from the same cell

NTs, vesicles, glutamate, GABA

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Most NTs are made in ________ but peptides are made in the _____ and then transported to terminals. Many peptide transmitters reside in terminals that also contain _______ small molecule transmitters

terminals, soma, classical

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small patterns of firing will result in ____ type of NT, while different patterns of firing will result in firing of additional _____

one, peptides

classical neurotransmitters

amino acids, monoamines, acetylcholine purines

amino acids

glutamate, GABA

monoamines

DA, NE, 5-HT

acetylcholine purines

ATP, adenosine

nonclassical NTs

neuropeptides, lipids, gasses

neuropeptides

endorphins, enkephalins, corticotropin-releasing factor, orexin/hypocretin, BDNF

lipids

anandamide, 2-arachidonoylglycerol

gasses

NO, CO, H2S

10 steps of neurotransmission

1. NT is synthesized and stored in vesicles 2. action potential invades presynaptic terminal 3. depolarization causes voltage gated Ca2+ channels to open 4. Ca2+ enters terminal through channels 5. Ca2+ causes vesicles to fuse with presynaptic membrane 6. NT is released into synaptic cleft via exocytosis 7. NT binds to receptor in postsynaptic membrane 8. opening / closing of postsynaptic channel or activation of second messenger 8. postsynaptic currents excite or inhibit the neuron 9. vesicle membrane gets retrieved/recycled via endocytosis

causes a very fast and distinct signal in the postsynaptic cell; do not travel far, and affect only one small part of the neuron

neurotransmitter

may enhance, reduce, or prolong the action of another NT, have differential effects, and does not change the excitability of a neuron at rest by much; not fast

neuromodulators

when neuromodulators diffuse away from the site of release to influence other cells and many parts of the cell; works on extrasynaptic receptors

volume transmission

receptors that are not tightly localized to presynaptic terminal

extrasynaptic receptors

many classical Nts can act as _____ depending on the specific receptor they interact with

neuromodulators

in general _____ and _____ firing releases more NT than ______ and _____ firing, due to better activation of ____ channels. Many neurons that use classical NTs switch to burst firing mode in response to motivationally or _____ relevant stimuli

higher rates, burst, lower rates, continuous, Ca2+, emotionally

receptors for the same NT released by the neuron

autoreceptors

receptors that are activated by NTs and inhibit further NT release by hyperpolarizing the terminal so that the next transmitter release is very little

presynaptic terminal autoreceptors

receptors that reside on cell bodies/dendrites that when activated, slow firing, reduce transmitter release by chemical released by cell body

somatodendritic autoreceptors

the processes of breaking an NT molecule in half after it pops off the post synaptic receptor; involves an enzyme embedded in the brain

enzymatic degradation

when transporters actively transport the NT to a place outside the synapse, or when NT is taken up by presynaptic neurons

reuptake

reuptake can occur by nearby ______, or mediated by _______ through active transport. However, some transporters are "sloppy" and can uptake other types of NTs with similar ____ _____

astrocytes, transporters, chemical structures

Almost all NTs have more than one receptor ______, which can vary in expression across or within brain regions. All subtypes bind the same ligand, but with different _______, such that ____ concentration of subtypes are needed for low affinity subtypes. Sometimes, different receptor subtypes can exert ______ cellular effects via different _____ ______.

subtype, affinities, greater, opposite, 2nd messengers

Some NTs only work on _______ receptors such as DA and ____, while others can work on these and ionotropic receptors, such as ____, GABA and ______

metabotropic, NE, Glu, ACh

Ionotropic receptors consist of ____ subunits with an _____ channel in the centre. It is embedded in the ______. Some ______ the cell by conducting Na+, while others do so by conducting ______. Some conduct _____ leading to hyperpolarization

4-5, ion, membrane, depolarize, Ca2+, Cl-

Metabotropic receptors act more slowly, and the effects last ______. It winds around the membrane several times and works by activating ____ proteins.

longer, g

G proteins inhibit/activate _______, or stimulate / inhibit _____ ______

ion channels, effector enzymes

enzymes that synthesize or break down second messenger molecules

effector enzymes

molecules inside cell that activate protein kinases that phosphorylate other proteins (turn on or off protein)

second messengers

_____ of ion channels and receptors can change their function. The same processes for nuclear proteins can turn _____ expression on/off (long term plasticity)

phosphorylation, gene

a second messenger pathway that stimulates protein kinase A; channels

cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)

breaks down a phospholipid in the cell membrane, liberating two 2nd messengers: diacylglycerol (DAG) and inoitol triphosphate (IP3)

phosphoinositide

DAG and IP3 increase concentration of _______ ions in the postsynaptic cell and activate _____ _______ _______. They are controlled by receptors for ACh, NE, and ______

Ca2+, protein kinase C, 5-HT

DAG and IP3 increase concentration of _______ ions in the postsynaptic cell and activate _____ _______ _______. They are controlled by receptors for ACh, NE, and ______

Ca2+, protein kinase C, 5-HT

If a drug acts a ______ it increases the rate of synthesis and activity, or it inhibits the ______ involved in synthesis to reduce transmitter levels

precursor, enzyme

precursor to DA

L-DOPA

5-HT precursor that helps with sleep

tryptophan

inhibits tyrosine hydroxylase, involved in making DA and NE; can induce depressive like symptoms

alpha-methyl-para-tyrosine (AMPT)

inhibits tryptophan hydroxylase, involved in synthesizing 5-HT

para-chlorophenylalanine

Drugs can block the storage of NT in ______, which exposes the NT to _______ _______ within the cell. An example is ______, which disrupts storage of _____, NE and 5-HT in vesicles by blocking ____ ________, causing depressive side effects

synaptic vesicles, enzymatic degradation, reserpine, DA, vesicular transporters

Drugs can stimulate release of NT by reversing _____ ______. An example is _____ which takes free floating molecules inside the terminal and pushes them outside into the _______ through a non vesicular mechanism. Furthermore, NT released through regular synaptic transmission is ______ because regular transporters are not doing their job

uptake transporters, amphetamine, synapse, abundant

stimulates the release of DA and NE through reversing uptake transporters

D-amphetamine

A decongestant that works like amphetamine, which is preferential for NE and has less BBB permeability; constricts blood vessels in the nose, but long term use leads to downregulation of receptors

pseudoephedrine

Drugs can directly block NT release. An example is ___ ____, which interferes with synaptic vesicle release of ______. It binds to proteins in the release point of the _______ _______, and prevents vesicles from binding and releasing NT. This results in face stretching but also impairment of ______ and ______

botulinum toxin, ACh, neuromuscular junction, respiration, movement

Drugs can also stimulate ______, or block ______, the postsynaptic receptor.

agonist, antagonist

An agonist that stimulates the micro-opioid receptor

heroin

an antagonist that blocks adenosine receptors

caffeine

an antagonist that blocks ACh muscarinic receptors - receptors in the brain and body involved in memory and congestion

atropine

A drug can also stimulate or block an _______. An autoreceptor agonist such as ______ and ______, reduces transmitter levels. An autoreceptor antagonist such as _____ increases transmitter levels

autoreceptor, Clonidine, 8-OH-DPAT, yohimbine

a NE autoreceptor agonist

clonidine

a 5-HT autoreceptor agonist

9-OH-DPAT

A NE autoreceptor antagonist which causes stress and anxiety like symptoms

yohimbine

a 5-HT autoreceptor antagonist

pindolol

Drugs can block the enzyme involved in NT _______, prolonging or enhancing the NT action. Examples are ____ which blocks acetyl-cholinesterase, that breaks down _____, and______ which blocks MAO which breaks down monoamines. However, these effects do not produce as rapid of effects as if you block _____

breakdown, physostigmine, ACh, phenelzine, reuptake

Drugs can block ______ transporters enhancing NT action. Examples are ____ which blocks the transporters for DA, ____ and _____, and ______ antidepressants, which block the ____ transporter, causing it to build up in the synaptic space

uptake, cocaine, 5-HT, NE, tricyclic, NE

additional binding sites other than the main one of the receptor

allosteric sites

molecules that bind to additional sites on the receptor and alter receptor functioning; can have a positive or negative effect on receptor signaling

allosteric modulators

Allosteric modulators have _____ effects on their own, as they can only _____ the effects of an agonist. Certain _____ hormones can act as allosteric modulators, which _____ ____ how much the receptor is turned on by the agonist. For an ionotropic receptor, the ion channel may _______ larger or smaller, while for a metabotropic receptor, it could be that the _____ ___ stays for longer, or a modulation in ______. Some _____ _____ are negative allosteric modulators

no, modulate, endogenous, fine tunes, open, second messenger, enzyme, inverse agonists

pyramid shaped cells that function as the principle output neurons of the cerebral cortex

pyramidal neuron

Neurotransmitter receptors and proteins on the postsynaptic side of the cleft

postsynaptic density

the connection point between a neuron and muscle

neuromuscular junction

both chemical and electrical transmission occur between neurons

mixed synapses

when two neurons are connected by specialized proteins that permit the flow of electric current from one cell to the other

electrical synapse

tight cell-to-cell synaptic interactions

wiring transmission

specialized release sites near the postsynaptic cell - only vesicles located here can release NT

active zones

the NTs that are immediately released

readily releasable pool

The NTs further from active zones that can be called upon for release when the neuron is firing for a prolonged period of time

reserve pool

the readying of vesicles for NT release once Ca2+ is there

priming

when an ionotropic channel remains closed even though a ligand is bound and must be resensitized before it can be activated again

desensitization

a second messenger that is regulated by NO, activates protein kinase G and is inactivated by phosphodiesterase

cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP)

a kinase activated by Ca2+ that help activate PKC

calcium calmodulin kinase II

receptors that mediate the action of neurotrophic factors

tyrosine kinase receptors

proteins that stimulate survival and growth of neurons during early development and are also involved in neuronal signaling

neurotrophic factors

When various experiences can alter the strength of synaptic connections, resulting in both functional and structural changes; dendritic length, branching patterns, and dendritic spines can all be altered by drugs

synaptic plasticity