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Biology > ch 11 & 12 (genetics & protein synthesis) > Flashcards

ch 11 & 12 (genetics & protein synthesis) Flashcards

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1
Q

why did Gregor Mendel pick pea plants for his study?

A

because they…

grew quickly, were easy to cross-pollinate (breed), had distinct variations of characteristics

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2
Q

what did Gregor Mendel do during his experiment/study? (steps)

A
  1. he started with a homozygous group, and let them self-pollinate for 2 years.
  2. HE then crossed them (tall and short) to make the F1 generation.
  3. he then crossed the F1 generation to make the F2 generation
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3
Q

what did Mendel find in the F1 generation?

A

all of the individuals showed one characteristic (tall)

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4
Q

what did Mendel find in the F2 generation?

A

75% were tall and 25% were short

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5
Q

what did Mendel observe and then conclude?

A

observed- that the factor for short was still present in the F1 generation. It had to be hidden by the factor for tall

concluded- that some factors for a particular trait are dominant while others are recessive

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6
Q

law of dominance

A

some factors for a particular trait are dominant while others are recessive

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7
Q

law of segregation

A

states that alleles are separated from each other during the formation of gametes. The homologous chromosomes separate during meiosis.

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8
Q

homozygous

A

same alleles (TT or tt)

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9
Q

heterozygous

A

different alleles (Tt)

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10
Q

Phenotype

A

physical characteristics/what it looks like (blue eyes)

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11
Q

genotype

A

what alleles you have what gene combination

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12
Q

what was Gregor Mendel

A

Scientist who grew plants and studied the passing of traits to offspring. discovered-
dominant and Recessive factors/ principle of dominance, Principle of segregation, Principle of Independent Assortment

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13
Q

law of independent assortment

A

stated that when two or more characteristics are inherited, individual hereditary factors assort independently during gamete production, giving different traits an equal opportunity of occurring together.

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14
Q

hybrid

A

the offspring of crosses between parents with different traits

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15
Q

genes

A

chemical factors that determine traits

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16
Q

incomplete Dominance

A

cases in which one allele is not completely dominant over another

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17
Q

codominance

A

both alleles contribute to the phenotype

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18
Q

multiple alleles

A

when many genes have more than two alleles

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19
Q

Polygenic traits

A

traits controlled by two or more genes

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20
Q

allele

A

the different forms of a gene

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21
Q

why did Thomas Hunt Morgan pick fruit flies for his study

A

they were…

small in size, easy to keep in lab, able to produce large numbers of offspring in a short time

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22
Q

Thomas Hunt Morgan

A

A scientist who applied Mendels Principles to the offspring of fruit flies

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23
Q

what did MORGAN do and find during his study on fruit flies?

A
  1. Found that certain genes seemed to be inherited with each other.
  2. He grouped those genes that seemed to be linked together and found that THERE were 4 different groups
  3. found that it is not genes that assort independently , it is chromosomes. Those genes on the same chromosome move together during meiosis
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24
Q

genes on the same chromosome move together during meiosis. what happens during meiosis that could change that ?

A

crossing over

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25
Q

who was Fedrick Griffin

A

a scientist who performed the first major experiment that led to the discovery of DNA as the genetic material. He performed the first demonstration of bacterial transformation

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26
Q

what were the 2 different types of bacterium Fredrick Griffin found?

A

smooth coat strain and rough strain

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27
Q

smooth coat strain (s)

A

bacterium which is lethal (cause death) to mice; disease-causing strain

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28
Q

rough strain (r)

A

bacterium which will not hurt the mouse

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29
Q

gene map

A

shows the relative locations of each known gene on a particular chromosome

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30
Q

what did Fedrick Griffin’s do in his experiment?

A

he injected several different strains of the bacterium streptococcus pneumoniae into mice.

a. injected s strain into mouse. the mouse died
b. Injected r strain into mouse. the mouse lives
c. He heat-killed the S strain and then injected it into the mouse. the mouse lived.
d. He took a mixture with the heat-killed S strain, mixed with the r strain, and injected it into the mice. the mouse died

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31
Q

what Fedrick Griffin conclude from his experiment?

A

some material in the heat-killed S strain was responsible for “transforming” the R strain into a lethal form.

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32
Q

genetics

A

the scientific study of heredity

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33
Q

what interaction determines characteristics

A

the interaction between genes and the environment

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34
Q

what did Thomas Hunt Morgan conclude

A

Mendels principle still holds true and each chromosome is actually a group of linked genes

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35
Q

transformation

A

the process in which one strain of bacteria changes permanently into another

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36
Q

what did Owswald Avery, C.M. MacLeod, and M. McCarty conclude during their experiment?

A

that the genetic material responsible for the transformation was DNA. And that when S cells were killed, DNA was transferred

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37
Q

what did Oswald Avery and his team do during his experiment?

A

he continued Fedrick Griffin’s work:

  1. THey made 2 extracts from heat-killed bacteria and treated each one with different enzymes. one enzyme could break down DNA and the other proteins,lipids, carbohydrates, more molecules including RNA.
  2. Thay then observed in which plate TRAnsformation did and did not occur
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38
Q

what was the debate between the genetic material responsible for the transformation?

A

DNA or Proteins

39
Q

what were the results Oswald Avery’s experiment?

A

transformation did not occur in the plate with DNA destroying enzymes when DNA was destroyed

transformation did occur in the plate with protein-destroying enzymes

40
Q

who was Oswald Avery

A

a scientist who identified the molecule that transformed the R strain of bacteria into the S.

41
Q

why did the R strain turn into S during Fedrick Griffin’s experiment?

A

because when the S cells were killed, DNA was transferred and the R bacteria incorperated this DNA into their cells and turned into S cells

42
Q

what is bacteriophage

A

a kind of virus that infects bacteria

43
Q

What is fertilization?

A

process in sexual reproduction in which male and female reproductive cells join to form a new cell

44
Q

true-breeding

A

organisms that produce offspring identical to themselves if allowed to self-pollinate

45
Q

who was Hershey and Chase

A

scientists who used radioactive labeling to trace the DNA and PRotein

46
Q

what makes up a bacteriophage

A

a protein coat and a DNA core

47
Q

what did Hershey and Chase conclude?

A

that the genetic meterial in the bacteriophage was DNA NOT protein

48
Q

what did Hershey and Chase do in their experiment

A
  1. they grew viruses in clusters containing radioactive isotopes of phosphorus 32 (32P) and sulfur 35 (35S). (these substances could be used as markers)
  2. IF 35 S was found in the bacteria it would mean that the virus is protein had been injected into the bacteria.
    IF 32P was found in the bacteria then it was the DNA that had been injected
49
Q

Gene linkage

A

the tendency of DNA sequences that are close together on a chromosome to be inherited together during the meiosis phase of sexual reproduction.

50
Q

what did GREgor MEndel use pea plants to study for?

A

to study how characteristics go from one generation to the next.

51
Q

explain the meaning of D and R in terms of alleles

A

D: an allele that produces the same phenotype whether its paired allele is identical or different

R: an allele that produces its characteristic phenotype only when its paired allele is identical.

52
Q

what is the difference between a diploid and haploid

A

the # of chromosomes:

diploid: fullest set of chromosomes, contains two sets of homologous chromosomes
haploid: half a set of chromosomes

53
Q

what are the 3 main types of RNA?

A

messenger RNA, transfer RNA, ribosomal RNA

54
Q

what does messenger RNA do?

A

carriers copies of the instructions for assembling amino acids from DNA to the rest of the cell

55
Q

what does transfer RNA do?

A

transfers each amino acid to the ribosome to help assemble proteins

56
Q

what does ribosomal RNA do?

A

makes up the major part of ribose

57
Q

list the 3 critical things that genes were known to do

A
  1. genes had to carry info from one generation to the next
  2. had to determine the haritable characteristics of organisms
  3. had to be easily copied
58
Q

what did x-ray diffraction help solve about dna

A

its structure, that it was a double helix

59
Q

DNA is often is compared to a twisted later, what are the rails on the later represented by?

A

the alternating Deoxyribose and phosphate

60
Q

on the top rail of DNA, what is the strand said to be oriented

A

5’ to 3’

61
Q

what is the strand on the bottom f DNA said to be oriented

A

3’ to 5’ (runs oposite to the top)

62
Q

what forms the backbone of a DNA chain

A

it is formed by the sugar and phosphate groups of each nucleotide

63
Q

what is the difference between codominance and incomplete dominace?

A

In codominance, both alleles are expressed at the same time without any blending and in incomplete dominance the two traits are blended

64
Q

Where does RNA polymerase bind?

A

To the promoter

65
Q

nucleotide

A

a Monomer of nucleic acids made up of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base

66
Q

what do nucleosomes coil to form?

A

chromatin fibers

67
Q

histones

A

proteins around which DNA is tightly coild to form nucleosomes

68
Q

who was James Watson and Francis Crick

A

two scientists who developed the double-helix model of the structure of DNA

69
Q

who was Erwin Chargraff

A

a scientist who discovered the percentages of guanine and cytosine bases are almost equal in any sample of DNA

70
Q

Chargraff’s rules

A

the observation that the percentage of adenine=thymide and the percentage of guanine=cytosine in the DNA molecule

71
Q

why do parental strands of DNA separate?

A

to serve as templates and produce DNA molecules that have one strand of parental DNA and one strand of new DNA

72
Q

what do nucleosomes do?

A

they fold enormous lengths of DNA into the cell nucleus

73
Q

DNA Helicase

A

an enzyme that is responsible for unwinding and unzipping the double helix

74
Q

DNA polymerase

A

an enzyme that continues adding appropriate nucleotides to the chain by adding 3’ end of the new DNA strand

75
Q

what happens to the leading strand as DNA unwinds

A

it is elongated

76
Q

what happens to the LEading strand

A

it is synthesized continuously

77
Q

what happens to the lagging strand

A

it elongates away from the replication fork and is synthesized discontinuously into small segments called Okazaki fragments

78
Q

how is DNA replicated

A

the DNA strands are separated by the Helicase enzyme and held apart by another enzyme called RNA primase. While held open the DNA polymerase, slides along one strand of DNA placing nucleotides to build a matching copy. THe second strand, called the lagging strand, is copied by DNA polymerase.

79
Q

transcription

A

the process in which part of the nucleotide sequence of DNA is copied into a complementary sequence

80
Q

translation

A

decoding of a messenger RNA message into a polypeptide chain

81
Q

codon

A

three-nucleotide sequences on messenger RNA that codes for a single amino acid; the 3 base code in DNA or mRNA (that tRNA reads)

82
Q

base pairing

A

the principle that bonds in DNA can form only between adenine and thymine and between guanine and cytosine

83
Q

intron

A

sequence of DNA that is not involved in in coding for the protein

84
Q

exon

A

expressed sequence on DNA-codes for a protein

85
Q

mutation

A

a permanent change that occurs in a call’s DNA is called a mutation

86
Q

what are 4 types of mutations

A

point mutation
insertion
deletion
frameshift

87
Q

what are 3 things that can cause mutation

A
  1. can occur spontaneously
  2. chemicals and radiation can damage DNA
  3. high-energy forms of radiation, such as x rays and gamma rays
88
Q

somatic mutations

A

mutations in body cells, mutations that are not passed on to the next generation

89
Q

what happens when mutations occur in sex cells

A

they are passed on to the organism’s offspring and will be present in every one

90
Q

operon

A

a group of genes operating together

91
Q

what are 4 operons

A

operator, promoter, regulatory gene, genes coding for protein

92
Q

how are proteins made?

A
  1. in the nucleus, transcription begins. DNA matches with corresponding RNA bases making mRNA.
  2. mRNA then leaves the nucleus and attaches to a ribosome. TRAnslation then begins.
  3. tRNAs then match up with the corresponding bases on the mRNA, dropping off the amino acid it carries. making a chain of different amino acids which is a protein
93
Q

what are the functions of DNA and RNA polymerase?

A

DNA poly. : Synthesizes a DNA strand and used in DNA replication
RNA poly. : Used during transcription to synthesize the mRNA strand

Biology (13 decks)

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