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Year 1 NSF > Cardiovascular System > Flashcards

Cardiovascular System Flashcards

1
Q

What are the boundaries of the thorax cranially, dorsally, laterally, ventrally snd caudally?

A

Cranial- thoraxic inlet
Dorsally- thoracic vertebrae
Ventrally- sternum
Caudally- diaphragm

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2
Q

How many thoracic vertebrae are there?

A

13

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3
Q

What do ribs articulate with?

A

thoracic vertebrae

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4
Q

What is the dorsal 2/3 and ventral 1/3 of ribs made of and what is the junction called?

A

dorsal 2/3- bone
ventral 1/3- cartilage
costochondral junction

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5
Q

How many ribs form the costal arch?

A

First 9 attach to the sternum, the next 3 form the costal arch the last is a floating rib

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6
Q

How many bones make up the sternum?

A

8 sternebrae

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7
Q

What is the name of the first and last sternebrae?

A

first is the manubrium the last is the xiphoid process

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8
Q

What are the lobes of the left lung?

A

Cranial and caudal

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9
Q

What are the lobes of the right lung?

A

Cranial, middle, caudal and accessory

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10
Q

What lobe does a horse lack that most other domestic species have?

A

Middle lobe

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11
Q

What lines the the thorax?

A

The pleura

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12
Q

What are the two parts of the pleura?

A

visceral and parietal

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13
Q

What does the visceral pleura cover?

A

The lungs

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14
Q

What makes up the parietal pleura?

A

Medastinal, costal and diaphragmatic pleura

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15
Q

What is there between the visceral and parietal pleura?

A

Potential space filled with serous fluid eliminating friction

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16
Q

What part of the heart sits dorsally and cranially?

A

The base

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17
Q

What part of the heart is ventral and caudal?

A

The apex

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18
Q

In what direction does the heart lie?

A

Caudoventrally with slight left deviation to apex

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19
Q

What covers the outside of the heart?

A

The pericardium (visceral and parietal)

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20
Q

What are the layers to the body of the heart?

A

Inner layer of endocardium, muscular myocardium, outer epicardium

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21
Q

What is the name of the valve between the left atrium and ventricle?

A

atrioventricular (bicuspid/mitral) valve

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22
Q

What is the name of the valve between the right ventricle and atrium?

A

atrioventricular (tricuspid) valve

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23
Q

What septettes the two atrium?

A

The interatrial septum

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24
Q

What separates the two ventricles?

A

inter ventricular septum

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25
Q

What separates the right ventricle and pulmonary artery?

A

Pulmonic valve

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26
Q

What separates the left ventricle and aorta?

A

Aortic valve

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27
Q

What are the additional out pouches on the atriums called?

A

Appendage or auricle

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28
Q

What part of the heart receives oxygenated blood and where from?

A

Left atrium from pulmonary vein

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29
Q

What receives deoxygenated blood in the heart and by which vein?

A

right atrium via the venue cavae

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30
Q

What artery does blood leave the left ventricle by?

A

Aorta

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31
Q

What artery does blood leave the right ventricle by?

A

Pulmonary artery

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32
Q

What is contraction and relaxation phase of the cardiac cycle called?

A

contraction- systole

Relax- diastole

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33
Q

Why is ventricle filling largely passive?

A

Atrial systole occurs at the end of ventricular systole

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34
Q

What is the stage between contraction/relaxation and change in volume?

A

isovolumetric contraction/relaxation

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35
Q

When does isovolumetric contraction occur?

A

before aortic and pulmonary valves open but after the AV valves close

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36
Q

When does isovolumetric relaxation occur?

A

Before the AV valves open but after the aortic and pulmonary valves close

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37
Q

What two sounds are audible in a normal animal?

A

Sound 1 and 2

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38
Q

In which animals can S3 and S4 be heard?

A

Horse and cow due to larger hearts

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39
Q

What causes S1?

A

The AV valves close and blood which has entered the ventricle rebound

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40
Q

What causes S2?

A

The pulmonary and aortic valves close and blood echos in the great vessels marking end of systole

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41
Q

Where can S3 be heard?

A

In horses or cats and dogs with heart failure

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42
Q

What causes S3?

A

Blood turbulence in left ventricle as it flows in from atria under pressure

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43
Q

When can S4 be heard?

A

In the horse or in small animals with a impaired relaxation of the ventricular wall

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44
Q

What causes S4?

A

Caused by an increased force of contraction of the atria to overcome the slow relaxation

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45
Q

What is an abnormal sound of the heart called?

A

Murmurs

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46
Q

What causes murmurs?

A

Anything that interferes with normal blood flow (thickened valve, narrow valve, incomplete valve, defect in septum)

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47
Q

On the left side of a dog where can a stethoscope be positioned to hear the pulmonary, aortic and mitral valves?

A

PAM- rib spaces 3,4 and 5

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48
Q

What can be heard on the right side of the dog?

A

tricuspid in rib spaces 4 and 5

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49
Q

What electrically insulates the atria and ventricles?

A

Annulus fibrosis

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50
Q

Describe the electrical activity which causes the cycle of the heart

A

Initial impulse generated by SAN, this travels cell by cell across atria causing contraction to AV node, which conducts impulse slowly to allow full atria contraction, it then enters the bundle of his, passes through annulus fibrosis and divides left bundle and right bundle branches, which branch to supply purkinje fibres, left divides into anterior and posterior fascicles, one part of right branch crosses to septomarginal band

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51
Q

What are valves made up of?

A

Cusps

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52
Q

How are the AV valves attached to the ventricular walls?

A

Cusps are joined by chordae tendinae to papillary muscles

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53
Q

What do the chordae tendinae prevent?

A

The cusps from inverting into the atrium

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54
Q

What proportion of fluid in the body makes up ECF, ICF?

A

ICF- 2/3, ECF- 1/3

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55
Q

In what vessel is blood carried away from the heart and towards?

A

Arteries away, veins towards

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56
Q

In what vessel does exchange occur?

A

Capillaries

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57
Q

What kind of arteries are found near the heart and why?

A

Elastic to withstand high pressures

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58
Q

What does an arteriole divide to become?

A

Pre-capillary arteriole intermittent smooth muscle and no elastic

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59
Q

What does the smooth muscle in precapillaries control?

A

regulates blood flow to capillary beds for precapillary sphincter zone

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60
Q

What is collateral circulation?

A

Where arteries give off side branched as a safety net incase of blockage

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61
Q

What are arteries called with no collateral circulation?

A

End arteries

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62
Q

What is a sinusoid?

A

A sinusoid is a modification of a capillary with gaps between lining of cells allowing free communication between blood and surrounding tissues

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63
Q

What is diapedesis and where does it occur?

A

The movement of cells out of a vessel lumen and occurs in post capillary venules

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64
Q

What are direct capillaries between arteries and venules referred to as?

A

Throughfare channels, metarterioles or arteriovenous capillaries

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65
Q

What vessels can shut the capillary bed for the most direct root?

A

Arteriovenous anastomosis

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66
Q

What layers are arteries and veins made of?

A

Tunica intima- endothelial lining
Tunica media- smooth/elastic tissue
Tunica adventitia- outer CT

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67
Q

Which layers do capillaries not have?

A

Tunica media or adventia

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68
Q

What do clefts of overlapped endothelial cells form in capillaries?

A

Gap junction for the movement of water soluble molecules

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69
Q

What are fenestrations?

A

an area where the endothelial cells is reduced to a thin membrane to allow increased transport of substances

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70
Q

What are the major velds of the heart?

A

Aorta, pulmonary trunk, cranial/caudal venae cavae, pulmonary veins and coronary arteries and veins

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71
Q

Describe the root of the pulmonary trunk

A

From the right ventricle, directs caudally and penetrates pericardium and divides left and right pulmonary arteries to corresponding lung

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72
Q

Describe the formation of coronary arteries

A

Left ventricle to aortic bulb, between atria it forms sinuses, cranial sinus to right coronary caudosinistral sinus to left coronary.

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73
Q

What does the aorta give rise to after the aortic bulb?

A

Brachiocephalic trunk and paired subclavian arteries

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74
Q

What does the brachiocephalic trunk give rise to?

A

Common carotid arteries

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75
Q

What 4 vessels do the subclavian arteries give off?

A

Vertebral, costocervical, internal thoracic and superficial cervical

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76
Q

What does the 4 vessels branched off the subclavian arteries supply?

A

Forelimb, neck, cervicothoracic junction and a portion of the brain

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77
Q

After the branches off the subclavian what remains and what does it supply?

A

Axillary and supplies forelimb and chest wall

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78
Q

What does the internal thoracic artery branch off?

A

The subclavian

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79
Q

What does the internal thoracic artery supply?

A

Pleura, pericardium, thymus, pectoral muscles, cranial mammary glands

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80
Q

What does the internal thoracic artery continue to become?

A

Cranial epigastric artery

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81
Q

Describe the direction of the thoracic aorta

A

Caudally along dorsal thoracic cavity, until the aortic hiatus of the diaphragm

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82
Q

What does the thoracic aorta supply?

A

The vertebrae, ribcage, lungs oesophagus

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83
Q

What branches of thoracic aorta supply ribcage?

A

Dorsal intercostal arteries and caudal ribcage by dorsal costoabdominal artery

84
Q

What branch of the aorta supplies the lungs and oesophagus?

A

bronchoesophageal arteries

85
Q

What branch of the abdominal aorta supplies the diaphragm and cranial abdomen?

A

Phrenicoabdominal arteries

86
Q

What branch of the abdominal aorta supplies the lumbar tissues?

A

Lumbar arteries

87
Q

What branch of the abdominal aorta gives off gastric, hepatic and splenic arteries?

A

Coeliac artery

88
Q

What branch of the aorta supplies the small intestine?

A

Cranial mesenteric artery

89
Q

What branch of the aorta branches off to supply the kidneys?

A

Renal arteries

90
Q

What branch of the aorta supplies the reproductive organs?

A

Testicular or ovarian arteries

91
Q

What branch of the aorta supplies the colon and rectum?

A

Caudal mesenteric artery

92
Q

What branches of the aorta supplies the hind limb and pelvic viscera and gluteal muscles

A

hindlimb- external iliac arteries

Pelvis- internal iliac artery

93
Q

What does the aorta become to supply the tail?

A

median caudal artery

94
Q

How is blood returned to the right atrium?

A

The caudal vena cava and coronary sinus

95
Q

Where does the coronary sinus receive blood from?

A

The great cardiac vein and left azygous in ruminants and pigs

96
Q

Where does the cranial vena cava receive venous return from?

A

The body cranial to the heart via azygous vein and internal thoracic

97
Q

How is the head drained of blood?

A

Internal and external jugular vein

98
Q

What vein drains the chest and forelimb?

A

Cephalic

99
Q

What veins combine to form the cranial vena cava?

A

Axillary and subclavian

100
Q

What drains the hindlimb?

A

External iliac veins

101
Q

What drains the rectal and anal region?

A

Internal iliac vein

102
Q

What veins fuse to form the caudal vena cave?

A

L and R common iliac, deep circumflex, testicular and renal

103
Q

How does the caudal vena cava pass through the diaphragm?

A

Through the canal foramen

104
Q

Where does the left coronary artery arise from?

A

Caudosinistral coronary sinus

105
Q

What does the left coronary artery divide into?

A

Left inter ventricular artery and the circumflex artery

106
Q

Where does the right coronary artery arise from?

A

Cranial sinus

107
Q

When should an X-ray for examinations of lungs optimally be taken?

A

Peak inspiration

108
Q

What side of the animal is touching the plate in left lateral recumbency?

A

Left

109
Q

Why might elevation of the trachea occur?

A

Enlargement of the cardiac silhouette

110
Q

Why might the heart be lifted off the sternum?

A

Air in the pleural cavity

111
Q

What is the ventricular systolic pressure both left and right?

A

left- 120 mmHG,

right- 25 mmHg

112
Q

What is bulk flow?

A

Movement of fluid by means of pressure difference

113
Q

What is perfusion pressure?

A

The difference in pressure between two points

114
Q

What is transmural hydrostatic pressure?

A

Difference in pressure across a blood vessel

115
Q

What is bulk flow in and out of a capillary called?

A

flow in- absorption,

flow out- filtration

116
Q

What effects the rate of diffusion?

A

The spleed of the substrate, the conc gradient, SA, distance

117
Q

What do plasma proteins cause?

A

Plasma oncotic pressure

118
Q

What does a high plasma oncotic pressure cause?

A

Water to move in to the vessel

119
Q

How does water move in relation to oncotic pressure?

A

Low oncotic to high oncotic

120
Q

What is the starling equation?

A

Net pressure= hydrostatic pressure - oncotic pressure

121
Q

What does the starling equation show?

A

The net movement of water between capillaries and ISF

122
Q

What does dilation of arterioles cause for filtration and absorption?

A

Increases hydrostatic pressure in the capillary causing filtration along the whole capillary

123
Q

What is excessive ISF removed by?

A

Lymphatic system

124
Q

What is a build up of ISF fluid called?

A

Oedema

125
Q

What is a portal system?

A

Where capillary beds exist in series with one another

126
Q

What are examples of portal systems?

A

Splenic, gastric and mesenteric capillary beds empty into the portal vein which goes to the liver. The kidney also has a portal system and the hypothalamus and pituitary gland

127
Q

What is cardiac output?

A

the volume of blood pumped by one ventricle in a minute

128
Q

What is the name for the blood which remains after systole?

A

End systolic ventricular volume

129
Q

What is EDVV

A

End diastolic ventricular volume

130
Q

What is the difference between EDVV and ESVV called?

A

Stroke volume

131
Q

What is the ejection fraction?

A

The fraction of the EDVV that contributes to stroke volume (SF/EDVV)

132
Q

What effects EDVV and ESVV

A

heart rate, preload, after load and contractility

133
Q

What is cardiac output?

A

Strike volume x HR

134
Q

How can EDVV/ESVV alter stroke volume?

A

Increase EDVV or decrease ESVV

135
Q

What affects EDVV?

A

Filling time, compliance of ventricular wall and filling pressure (preload)

136
Q

What is preload?

A

The filling pressure of the ventricle

137
Q

How can preload be increased?

A

By increasing the pressure in the atria and veins

138
Q

Why does preload increase during exercise?

A

Skeletal/respiratory muscle pumps as it contracts, and relaxes it pumps the contents towards the heart, the diaphragm compresses cranial abdominal veins

139
Q

Why is too high of a preload lower SV?

A

too much stretching will cause damage to the myocardium and reduces contractility

140
Q

Why does some stretching of the myocardium increase contractility

A

Increased calcium release from the SR

141
Q

What is heterometric auto regulation?

A

Where the balance of stoke volume occurs as increased SV will cause and increase preload on the other side and increased SV

142
Q

What is compliance of ventricle walls?

A

How readily ventricular walls stretch during diastolic filling

143
Q

What is the equation of compliance?

A

Change in volume/

change in pressure

144
Q

What is lusitropy?

A

Ability of a ventricle to relax adequately

145
Q

During a high HR how can SV be maintained?

A

By reducing the ESVV by increasing contractility

146
Q

What is after load?

A

The ability of the heart to deliver its blood to the arterial system

147
Q

What will a higher after load increase?

A

ESVV

148
Q

What may sustained after load cause in the heart?

A

Myocardial hypertrophy

149
Q

What is vascular resistance a measure of?

A

Compliance of the arterial system

150
Q

How is resistance changed in blood vessels?

A

altering diameter

151
Q

What is total peripheral resistance?

A

Net resistance of the whole circulation

152
Q

What ate the two factors which influence aortic pressure?

A

total peripheral resistance and cardiac output

153
Q

Why does arterial pressure remain about the same during exercise and rest?

A

TPR reduces due to dilation during exercise and CO increased

154
Q

How does hypertension cause hypertrophy?

A

Increased pressure and therefore after load

155
Q

What is the equation of a pulse?

A

systolic pressure - diastolic pressure

156
Q

How can the mean arterial pressure be calculated except the aorta?

A

Diastolic pressure + 1/3 pulse

157
Q

What words describe high pulse pressure and low pulse pressure?

A

High- bounding

Low- thready

158
Q

How is pulse pressure increased?

A

Increasing SV, reducing compliance, increasing TPR, reducing HR

159
Q

How does the umbilical veins take oxygenated blood through the liver?

A

Via the hepatic sinusoids and ductus venosus

160
Q

After passing through the ductus venosus where does the blood empty in a foetus?

A

Empties into the caudal vena cava and returns to right atrium

161
Q

How is blood diverted from the right atrium to the left ventricle?

A

Foramen ovale

162
Q

What assists the diversion of blood through the foramen ovale?

A

The eustachian valve

163
Q

How is blood from the right ventricle redirected into the aorta?

A

By the ductus arteriosus

164
Q

What happens to the umbilical arteries immediately prior to birth?

A

Contraction to stop blood flow

165
Q

Why can the umbilical cord not be cut straight away?

A

Umbilical veins deliver 30% of blood volume which needs to take place

166
Q

What happens to blood flow when the neonate takes its first breath?

A

It first pulls all the pulmonary capillaries open resulting is a huge drop in resistance to flow on the right side of the heart increasing blood flow to the lungs

167
Q

What does increased flow to the the lungs cause?

A

Increased Venus return or preload to the left atrium increasing left atrial pressure

168
Q

How is the foramen ovale closed after birth?

A

The right atrium no longer receives placental blood and the pressure difference pushes the septum premium against the septum secundum

169
Q

After the closing of the foramen ovale what is the depression called?

A

Fossa ovalis

170
Q

How is the ductus arteriosis closed?

A

Muscle in the ductus contracts closing the lumen, it is permanently closed by connective tissue

171
Q

What is the remanent of the ductus arteriosis called?

A

ligamentum arteriosum

172
Q

How long does it usually take to close the ductus arteriosis?

A

2-3 weeks

173
Q

What us aortic stenosis?

A

narrowing of the aortic valve

174
Q

What can be heard from an aortic stenosis?

A

A systolic heart murmur- usually high pitched

175
Q

What is pulmonic stenosis?

A

Narrowing of the pulmonic valve

176
Q

What causes a pulmonic stenosis?

A

Narrowing of the pulmonary artery or the valve

177
Q

What does a pulmonic/aortic stenosis cause?

A

Increases after load on the ventricles causing hypertrophy of the muscle

178
Q

What is patent ductus arteriosis?

A

The ductus arterioles remains open

179
Q

What does patent ductus areteriosis cause?

A

Causes overload to the left side of the heart which could cause congestive heart failure

180
Q

What is heard from patent ductus arteriosis?

A

Audible through systole and diastole in rib spaces 3 and 4

181
Q

What can happen with patent ductus arteriosis if the lung vessels vasoconstrict?

A

Increases afterload on right ventricle, may >= aorta pressure causing deoxygenated blood to enter systemic circulation causing differential cyanosis (blue MMs)

182
Q

What are ventricular septal defects?

A

Gaps int the interventicular septum

183
Q

What is heard from ventricular septal defects?

A

Small- high pitched

Large- lower softer at rib space 5 on the right side

184
Q

What is a tetralogy of fallot?

A

4 defects- ventricular septal defect, dextraposed aorta, pulmonic stenosis, right ventricular hypertrophy

185
Q

What are vascular ring anomalies?

A

A group of defects in development of the aortic arch which entrap the oesophagus and trachea

186
Q

What is the most common vascular ring abnomaly?

A

most commonly persistent right 4th aortic arch combined with left ductus arteriosis

187
Q

What does vascular ring abnormalities cause?

A

Causes an animal to struggle eating solid food and megaoesophagus

188
Q

What is a congenital portosystemic shunt?

A

Anastomosis between the portal vein and the caudal vena cava

189
Q

What does a congenital potosystemic shunt cause?

A

Blood cannot be decontaminated by the liver and toxins remain in the blood stream

190
Q

What are clinical signs of congenital potosystemic shunt?

A

Stunted growth, copper irises in cats

191
Q

How is an action potential propagated in the heart?

A

Cell to cell through intercalated discs

192
Q

What is automaticity?

A

The ability to spontaneously depolarise and generate action potentials

193
Q

What cells posses automaticity?

A

Pacemaker cells

194
Q

What are cells called that develop automaticity after damage?

A

ectopic pacemakers

195
Q

What does the autonomic nervous system affect in the heart?

A

Sympathetic increased HR and force, parasympathetic does the opposite

196
Q

Why does the AV node slow down conduction of the AP?

A

To ensure full atrial contraction and emptying

197
Q

What causes the plateau phase of the action potential in the heart ?

A

The Ca2+ channels

198
Q

How do ions create the change in cardia myocytes membrane potential to change?

A

Fast Na+ channels open and almost immediately close and cell begins to repolarise, soon slow Ca2+ channels open via cyclin adenosine monophosphate causing the plateau phase, the Ca2+ causes calcium induced calcium release from the SR causing contraction, Ca2+ channels close and pumped into ECF

199
Q

Why are Na+ channels in a cardiac muscle cell so long?

A

To prevent a new action potential being initiated before a previous one is completed

200
Q

How does a atrial action potential differ to a ventricular?

A

Shorter due to Ca2+ channels being open for less time

201
Q

What are Na+ channels called in a pacemaker cell?

A

Pacemaker or funny Na+ channels

202
Q

When do pacemaker Na+ channels open and close?

A

Close during AP and ion once AP is finished

203
Q

When do slow Ca2+ channels open in a pacemaker cell?

A

Just before the cell reached potential

204
Q

What are the two axis of an ECG?

A

Voltage against time

205
Q

What does an ECG measure?

A

The electrical potential difference between two electrodes

206
Q

What does an ECG show if an action potential is traveling towards an electrode?

A

Upward deflection as there are more positive charges near the +ve electrode

207
Q

What does an ECG show id an action potential is traveling away from an electrode?

A

Downward deflection as there are more negative charges near the +ve electrode

Year 1 NSF (11 decks)

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