Cardiovascular Flashcards
where is the heart located?
mediastinum
what direction does the heart point in?
apex (inferior to the left)
base (posterior to the right)
what is the pericardium?
the membrane that surrounds and protects the heart
confines the heart to its position in the mediastinum to allow rapid movements or vigorous movements
what is the rile of the fibrous pericardium?
prevents overstretching of the heart and anchors it tp the mediastinum
what is the role of the serous pericardium?
contains pericardial fluid which lubricates the layers of the heart to prevent frictioning
what are the layers of the heart wall?
epicardium (contains adipose tissue)
myocardium (muscle layer making up 95%)
endocardium (covers valves of the heart and continues to cover large blood vessels)
what are auricles?
a wrinkled pouch-like structure that holds great volumes of blood
what are sulci?
grooves found in the heart
what are the coronary sulcus?
encircles most of the heart
what are the three major veins that supply the heart with blood?
superior vena cava
inferior vena cava
coronary sinus
where would you find pectinate muscles?
inside the anterior wall of the right atrium creating a rough muscular surface
what is the difference between the interatribal and interventricular septum?
interartiral (between the atriums)
interventricular (between the ventricles)
what is the difference between the tricuspid and bicuspid valves?
tricuspid (found between the right atrium and ventricle)
bicuspid (found between the left atrium and ventricle)
what are the chordae tendineas?
bundles of cardiac muscle fibers that act as strings to help open and close valves
connected to the papillary muscles
what is the pulmonary valve?
found between the right ventricle and the pulmonary trunk. delivers deoxygenated blood to the lungs to become oxygenated
what is another name for the bicuspid valve?
mitral or left atrioventricular valve
where does blood flow from when leaving the left ventricle?
to the aortic valve then ascending to the aorta. blood then can either flow to coronary arteries which lead to the heart wall or to the arch of the aorta
what is the ductus arteriosus?
temporary blood vessel present at fetal growth which allows only a small amount of blood to enter the fetal lungs to prevent excess fluid in the lungs
what is the ligamentum arteriosum?
the later outcome of the ductus arteriosus which connects the arch of the aorta to the pulmonary trunk
what is the role of the fibrous skeleton of the heart?
prevents overstretching of the chambers and also act as an insulator
what is the difference between the atrioventricular valve and the semilunar valve?
atrioventricular valve (found between the atrium and the ventricles)
semilunar valve (found between the ventricles and the aorta or pulmonary trunk)
what are intercalated disc?
irregular transverse thickening of the sarcolemma connecting ends of cardiac muscles together
what are desmosomes?
found in the intercalated disc
hold fibers together
what are gao junctions?
allow muscles action potentials to conduct from one muscles to the next
what is the autorhythmic fibers?
self-excitable fibres that are the source of electrical activity
what are the main functions of the autorhythmic fibres?
pacemaker
cardiac conduction system
where does cardiac action potential begin?
in the SA nodes or sinoatrial node
what is the order of action potential of cardiac fibres?
SA nodes
AV nodes
bundle of HIS
right and left bundle branches
Purkinje fibres
where does delay of action potential occur?
at the AV nodes to allow the blood to empty the ventricles
what chemical is responsible for depolarization?
Na
what chemical is responsible for plateau?
Ca+
what chemical is responsible for depolarization?
K
what is the role of an electrocardiogram machine?
records action potentials produced by all the heart muscle fibers during each beat
what does the P wave represent?
atrial depolarization
what does the GRS complex represent?
ventricular depolarization
what does the T wave represent?
ventricular repolarization
why can’t we see the atrial repolarization on an ECG machine?
since ventricular contraction is stronger than artial relaxation (occur at the same time)
what is the cardiac cycle?
events of one heart beat
what is the end-diastolic volume?
amount of blood in the ventricle at full relaxation (130 mL)
what is the isovolumetric contraction?
when both valves are closed for 0.05 second at the end of ventricular contraction
what is the end-systolic volume?
amount of blood remaining in the ventricle after relaxation ( 70 mL )
what is ausculatation?
act of listening to the sounds of the body
describe the “lubb dubb” sound of the heart
lubb (longest sound caused by valves closed at ventricular systolic)
dubb (shorter sound causes by valves shutting when ventricles is relaxed)
what is stroke volume?
amount of blood ejected by the ventricle during contraction
what is cardiac output?
the volume of blood ejected from the left ventricle into to aorta each minute
how do you calculate cardiac output?
stroke volume x heart rate
what is cardiac resevre?
difference between a persons maximum cardiac output and rest
what is the frank starling law?
more the heart fills with blood during diastole, the greater the force of contraction
what is systemic circulation?
all arteries and arterioles that carry oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to systemic capillaries (body circulation)
what is pulmonary circulation?
blood returned to the heart from the systemic route
What is coronary circulation?
supplies the heart wall with blood since the nutrients are not able to diffuse quickly enough from blood in the chambers of the heart to supply each layer of the heart wall
where does the right coronary arise from? what does is supply?
arise (ascending aorta)
supply (small branches of right atrium)
where does the left coronary artery arise?
arise (ascending aorta)
where does the anterior interventricular branch arise? where does it supply?
arise (left coronary artery)
supplies (both ventricle walls)
where does the circumflex branch arise? where does it supply?
arise (left coronary artery)
supplies (left ventricle and left atrium)
where does the posterior inter ventricular branch arise? where does it supply?
arise (right coronary artery)
supplies (wall of both ventricle)
where does the marginal branch arise? where does it supply?
arise (right coronary artery)
supplies (right ventricle myocardium)
what is the role of the coronary sinus?
remove deoxygenated blood from the heart and empties the right atrium
what is the role of the great cardiac vein?
removes deoxygenated blood from the left and right ventricle and left atrium
what is the role of the middle cardiac vein
removes deoxygenated blood from the ventricles (both)
what does the small cardiac vein do?
removes deoxygenated blood from the right atrium and ventricle
what is the role of the anterior cardiac vein?
remove deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle and opens it to he right atrium
what is anastomoses?
two or more arteries are connected and supply the same region
where do the following aortas arise?
ascending
aortic arch
thoracic
abdominal
ascending (left ventricle to the pulmonary trunk)
aortic arch (T4-T5)
thoracic (before the diaphragm at T12)
abdominal (after the diaphragm at T12 to L4)
what are the three divisions of the arch?
brachiocephalic trunk
left common carotid artery
left subclavian artery
what is the main vein of the heart?
coronary sinus
where does the superior vena cava drain blood from?
head, neck, upper limbs, thorax
what is the largest vein in the body?
inferior vena cava
where does the inferior vena cava drain blood from?
abdomen, pelvis, low limbs
what are the three main veins of the head?
internal jugular vein
external jugular vein
vertebral vein
what veins of the upper body are most superficial?
cephalic
basilic
median antebrachial
what veins of the upper body are deepest?
brachiocephalic
subclavian
axillary
ulnar
radial
brachial
where does the hepatic vein drain into?
liver into inferior vena cava
where does venous blood get most of their high nutrient-rich blood?
GI tract and spleen
what veins are superficial in the leg?
great and small saphenous vein
what veins are deepest in the leg?
common iliac
external iliac
popliteal
posterior tibial
anterior tibial
what is the longest vein in the body?
great saphenous
where does the great saphenous vein drain into?
femoral vein
where does the small saphenous vein drain into?
popliteal vein
where does your peroneal vein drain into?
posterior tibial vein
how long do red blood cells live?
120 days
why do red blood cells have a shorter life span?
due to wear and tear of their plasma membranes undergo as they squeeze through blood capillaries
does RBC have a nucleus?
no
what happens when RBC rupture?
they are removed from circulation and destroyed by phagocytic macrophages in the spleen and liver
where does RBC formation occur?
bone marrow
what is transferrin?
a transporter for Fe+ in the blood stream
what is ferritin?
iron storage protein
what are reticulocytes?
immature and non functioning RBC
what are erythrocytes?
mature functioning hemoglobin and oxygen carrying RBC
what things are required for RBC production?
iron
B12
hemoglobin
amino acids
what is erythropoiesis?
production of RBC
what is the difference between biliverdin and bilirubin?
biliverdin (green pigment)
bilirubin (yellow-orange pigment)
where does bilirubin get transported too?
liver
what is urobilinogen?
converted bilirubin in the large intestine
what is urobilin?
excreted via urine
what is stercobilin?
brown pigmented excreted via feces
what is serum?
straw coloured liquid
blood plasma minus the clotting process
what is a clot?
gel-like substance that separates from the liquid of blood
what is coagulation?
process of blood clotting
what is a thrombosis?
when a blood clot forms in an undamaged vessel
what lotting factor is found via liver and platelets?
CF 5
CF 13
what clotting factor is found via damaged tissue and activated platelets?
CF 3
what clotting factor is found via diet, bones, and platelets?
CF 4
what is a thrombus?
clot found in an unbroken vessel and is attached to its origin
what is an embolism?
embolus that blocks blood flow to organs
what is an embolus?
a blood clot, bubble of air, or broken bone that transport via blood stream
what are blood types named after?
type of antigens (type A = A antigens)
what is the universal donor?
type O
what is the universal recipient?
type AB
does type AB have antibodies?
no
what is immunology?
study of the response of the body when challenged with an antigen
what is immunity?
ability of the body to defend itself against specific invading agents such as viruses, bacteria, toxins, and foreign tissue
what is an antigen?
substance that are recognized as foreign and provoke an immune response
where would you find the maturation of b and t cells?
b cells (red bone marrow)
t cells (thymus and occurs before puberty)
what is immunocompetence?
ability to carry out adaptive immune response
what is the difference between CD4 and CD8 proteins?
CD4 (help T cells)
CD8 (cytotoxic T cells)
what is the difference between cell-mediated immunity and antibody-mediated immunity?
cell-mediated (cytotoxic T cells which directly attack)
antibody-mediated (b cells which signal immunoglobulins)
what is another name for antibodies?
immunoglobulin
what are the two characteristics of antigens?
immunogenicity (ability to cause immune response)
reactivity (ability to react to antibodies)
what is an epitope?
small part of a large antigen molecule that acts as a trigger for immune responses
what is a hapten?
a smaller substance that has reactivity but lacks immunogenicity can only stimulate an immune response
what is genetic recombination?
shuffling and rearranging of gene segments
what is the major histocompatibility comlex?
self-antigens located in the plasma membrane of body cells. they are unique unless you have an identical twin
allows cells to recognize our cells as out own
what is cytokines?
small protein hormone that stimulates or inhibuts many normal cells functions
what is clonal selection?
the process by which a lymphocyte proliferates and differentiates in response to a specific antigen
results in clone cells that can recognize the same antigens as the original lymphocytes
what is the end result of clonal selection?
memory cells
what are effector cells?
cloned t cells that carry out immune response
what is anegry?
recognition without co-stimulation that leads to a prolonged state of inactivity of B and T cells
body then no longer responds to antigens
what are the following terms:
activation
proliferation
differentiation
activation (t cells undergoes antigen recognition and co-stimulation)
proliferation (division of cells several times)
differentiation (formation of cells into more specialized cells)
what is the cytokine that stimulates both CD4 and CD8 t cells?
interleukin-2
describe the following:
IgG
IgA
IgM
IgD
IgE
IgG (found in intestines, only antibody to provide immune protection to the fetus)
IgA (provides protection from bacteria and viruses)
IgM (activates complement system)
IgD (surface B cells)
IgE (mast cells and basophils, allergic and hypersensitivity reactions)
what is the complement system?
a defensive system where proteins undergo phagocytosis, cytolysis, and inflammation to prevent excessive tissue damage
describe the following:
naturally acquired active immunity
naturally acquired passive immunity
artificially acquired active immunity
artificially acquired passive immunity
naturally acquired active immunity (exposure to viruses)
naturally acquired passive immunity (mother and baby)
artificially acquired active immunity (vaccination)
artificially acquired passive immunity (IV injections)
what parts are considered the respiratory system?
nose
pharynx (throat)
larynx (voice box)
trachea (wind pipe)
bronchi
lungs
what is the conducting zone?
interconnecting cavities and tubes both outside and within the lungs
used to filter, warm, and moisten air and conduct into the lungs
what is the respiratory zone?
consist of tubes and tissue within the lungs where gas exchange occurs
what is the function of the nose?
warming. moisten and filter air
detecting olfactory stimuli
modifying speech vibrations as they pass by chambers
is the pharynx composed of smoooth or skeletal msucles?
skeletal
what does the pharynx do?
passageway for food and air
provides speech of sound
house tonsils which plays a part in immune response
what are the three regions of the pharynx?
nasopharynx
oropharynx
laryngopharynx
what are the divisions in order of the bronchis?
lobar
segmental
bronchioles
terminal bronchioles
bronchial tree
what is the cardiac notch?
left lung contains a concavity in which the apex of the heart lies
how many fissures and lobes does each lung have?
left (2 lobes, 1 fissure)
right (3 lobes, 2 fissures)
what is the main site of gas exchange?
type one alveolar cells
what is surfactant?
lowers the surface tension of alveolar fluid which reduces the tendency of alveoli to collapse and thus maintain their patency
where does pulmonary ventilation occur?
inhalation and exhalation of air. exchanges of ait between the atmosphere and alveoli in the lungs
where does external respiration occur?
between alveoli of the lungs and blood in pulmonary capillaries
where does internal respiration occur?
between blood in systemic capillaries and tissue
what is boyles law?
relationship between volume an pressure
if pressure increases, volume decreases
if volume increases, pressure decreases
what is the first step of expanding the lungs?
contracting the diaphragm and external intercostals
what is intrapleural pressure?
pressure between the two pleural layers in the cavity
what is alveolar pressure?
pressure inside the lungs
what happens to the intrapleural pressure when breathing in?
the size of the thoracic cavity increases which causes the volume of the pleural cavity to decrease leading to increase in intrapleural pressure
what are the accessory muscles of inhalation?
SCM
scalene
pec. minor
is breathing out passive or active?
can be both depending on if the breath is forced or not
what is elastic recoiling?
the chest wall and lungs spring back after being stretched
what is eupnea?
quiet breathing
what is costal breathing?
shallow chest breathing
what is diaphragmatic breathing?
deep breathing
what is tidal volume?
volume of one breath
what is minute ventilation?
the total volume of air inhaled and exhaled each minute
what is the anatomic dead space?
any airway with air that doesn’t undergo exchange
what is inspiratory capacity?
sun of tidal volume and inspiratory resevre
what is vital capacity?
sum of inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and expiratory reserve volume
what is daltons law?
the total pressure of a mixture is calculated by adding the partial pressure
what is henrys law?
the amount of dissolved gas in water depends on the partial pressure
higher the pressure, the better it dissolves
what is pulmonary gas exchange?
diffusion of oxygen from air in alveoli of lungs to the blood in pulmonary capillaries
what is the systemic gas exchange?
occurs in the body tissues
what things effect pulmonary and systemic gas exchange?
partial pressure
surface area
diffusion distance
molecule weight
