C9 - Red and Rose Winemaking /checked Flashcards
Name the 2 main methods to handle the fruit before fermentation.
- Crushed Fruit Fermentation (majority is Destemmed)
2. Whole Bunch Fermentation
What do some red winemakers do after crushing?
Leave the grapes to macerate for a period of a low temperature
What is the name of the process of skin contact after crushing, before fermentation is started?
Cold Maceration/Cold Soaking
What is the purpose of Cold Maceration/Cold Soaking?
To extract colour and flavour compounds
Tannins are more soluble in alcohol and therefore not readily extracted at this point
Between what temperatures does red wine fermentation usually occur?
20C - 32C (depending on style)
Why are the temperatures of fermentation higher for red wine than for white?
To aid extraction of colour, flavour and tannin
Beyond what temperature should red wine fermentation not go?
Why?
35C
This may kill the yeast
How may a red winemaker influence the amounts of colour, flavour and tannin extracted during fermentation?
By precise TEMPERATURE CONTROL
Describe how tannin levels may be reduced in red wines
By reducing the temperature near the end of fermentation
What is the mass of pulp and skins called, that forms on a fermenting red wine?
The CAP
What will be the result if the cap is left to float on a wine?
LITTLE EXTRACTION of colour, flavour or tannin.
Name 4 techniques to manage the cap (and therefor extraction)
- Punching Down
- Pumping Over
- Rack and Return
- Rotary Fermenters
What was the big problem with the traditional method of punching-down?
CO2 intoxication of workers
Which cap management technique is particularly effective at extracting colour and tannin?
Punching down
What is the potential problem when punching down, mechanical or otherwise?
When is it most important to consider this/why?
It can be too effective at extracting colour and tannin
At the end of fermentation because due to the increasing alcohol, tannins are more easily extracted at this point
What is pumping over?
It involved drawing off juice from the bottom of the vat and pumping it onto the top of the fermenting wine
What is pumping over particularly good at?
It is a good way of OXYGENATING the juice and DISSIPATING HEAT
Describe Rack and Return
The fermenting juice is drained from the vessel into another one, leaving the cap behind
The juice is then pumped back over the cap
What is the big disadvantage of Rack and Return? How is this managed?
It can be very extractive
It is only performed once or twice during a fermentation
What is Rack and Return particularly good at?
Dissipating heat
Describe Rotary Fermentation
Fermentation takes place in ROTATING HORIZONTAL TANKS
What is the intention of Rotary Fermentation?
To keep the juice in constant contact with the skins
What effect does cap management techniques have on the characteristics of the fermentation vessel that’s used? (2)
- Usually large
2. Often open-topped
What kind of vessel should NOT be used for fermenting red wines?
Why?
Oak Barrels (e.g. barrique)
It would be almost impossible to maintain sufficient contact between the skins and the juice
What is the main aim of post-fermentation maceration?
There is a paradox in this
To extract further tannin
Some winemakers have found that extended periods of post-fermentation maceration can create a smoother tannin structure
What happens to red wine immediately after fermentation/maceration? (2 streams)
- The free run wine is drawn off the skins = FREE RUN WINE
2. The remaining mass is pressed = PRESS WINE
What is press wine?
The wine which is released from pressing the grape mass after fermentation (in the case of red wine)
Describe how press wine differs as it’s being pressed
It is similar in composition to free-run wine at the beginning, but has DEEPER COLOUR and HIGHER TANNIN as pressing continues
How is press wine managed by red winemakers?
They will usually separate the wine at different stages of pressing - FRACTIONS
What is the name for the wines separated at different stages of pressing?
PRESS FRACTIONS
What may press fractions be used for later in the process of red winemaking?
To adjust COLOUR and TANNIN in the final BLEND
What is the main consideration for a winemaker when they are using whole bunches?
Why?
That the STEMS must be RIPE
The unripe stems of a whole bunch may give the finished wine an undesirable bitter taste
What is the main reason for using whole bunches during fermentation?
To create an OXYGEN FREE environment for the uncrushed grapes
What are the 2 main outcomes of creating an oxygen-free environment for fermenting grapes?
- Intracellular fermentation (no yeast involved)
2. Distinctive aromas are created within the berry
Define Intracellular Fermentation
Berries create alcohol within their cells without the involvement of yeast
List the three forms of whole-bunch fermentation
- Carbonic maceration
- Semi-carbonic maceration
- Whole bunches with crushed fruit
List the key stages of carbonic maceration (5)
- Whole uncrushed bunches are placed into vats which are FILLED WITH CO2 to remove all oxygen
- Intercellular fermentation begins
- At 2% alcohol, the grapes begin to split and they begin to release their juice
- The grapes are pressed
- Yeast completes the fermentation (off the skins)
What is the key structural difference in wines made using carbonic maceration? (2)
Extraction of:
- LOTS OF COLOUR
- LITTLE TANNIN
What are the distinctive aromas/flavours of a wine made with carbonic maceration? (4)
- Kirsch
- Banana
- Bubblegum
- Cinnamon-like spice
Describe semi-carbonic maceration? (5)
- NO CO2 added
- The vat is filled with whole bunches
- The WEIGHT of the whole bunches CRUSHES those at the bottom, releasing some juice
- Ambient yeast begin to ferment the juice at the bottom, filling the tank with CO2 as a by-product
- Remaining grapes undergo carbonic maceration as normal
Name a notable wine style which is made using semi-carbonic maceration. How is this process different?
Some premium Pinot Noirs
Alcoholic fermentation continues on the skins
How is the winemaking process different when semi-carbonic maceration is used for premium Pinot Noir? (4)
- Grape skins are progressively broken up during punching down
- An ever-decreasing amount of carbonic maceration takes place until all grapes are broken up
- Normal fermentation may continue on skins
- Post-fermentation maceration may take place
What is the potential result of the premium pinot noir approach to semi-carbonic maceration?
- It can result in a BETTER INTEGRATION of AROMAS from intracellular fermentation and the aromas from the grape variety
- Wine have a FRESHER FRUIT character
How is intracellular fermentation encouraged when whole bunches are mixed with crushed fruit?
The whole grapes are usually submerged in the juice of the crushed ones, resulting in a lack of access to oxygen for the whole grapes
How are the more ‘carbonic’ characteristics created when using whole bunches with crushed fruit?
Using a LARGER PERCENTAGE of whole bunches
What are thought to be the outcomes of using a greater percentage of whole bunches with crushed fruit? (2)
- Silkier texture
2. Brighter, fresher fruit characteristics
What is the most important decision when it comes to pre-bottling maturation when making red wines?
The option of whether or not to use oak
TO OAK OR NOT TO OAK
How frequent is MLF used in red winemaking?
Virtually all red wines undergo MLF
Do red wines benefit from extended time on lees?
Why?
NO
The generally more robust flavours of red wines mean they benefit less from extended time on lees than white wines do.
What trend is noted with respect to maturing premium red wine entirely in small new oak barrels?
This trend is declining in most wine regions.
Wine producers are now aiming for Subtlety and integration, achieved by using oak vessels of different ages and larger sizes.
What is BLENDING used for in the making of red wine?
Give examples
To enhance or balance out certain aspects of the wine, such as colour, body, tannin, acidity and flavour.
What is used in red winemaking to boost colour, flavour and tannin in the more delicate free-run wines?
BLENDING
The use of different press fractions
Why might a red winemaker avoid clarification and/or stabilisation?
Some winemakers believe that these processes may harm the wine’s structure
How may clarity be achieved without filtration in a red wine?
By allowing gradual SEDIMENTATION through extended maturation
Describe the grape-growing areas responsible for high-volume, inexpensive red wines
They tend to be WARM, SUNNY, DRY
What variety characters are sought to be used for high-volume, inexpensive red wines?
Name 4 examples
- Those that can thrive in warm, sunny and dry conditions
- Due to the HIGH CONCENTRATION of Colour, Flavour, Tannin in SKIN they can produce fruity wines with adequate colour even at HIGH YIELDS.
Shiraz, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Grenache
How may the high-volume examples of red wine grapes compare with their premium counterparts?
- LESS COMPLEX, EXPRESSION. (They may display less colour, lighter tannins and less intense and complex aromas)
= Distinctive characteristics may diminish, resulting in more HOMOGENEOUS wines
Name a black grape which is rarely used in high-volume, inexpensive wines
Why?
PINOT NOIR
It’s hard to grow, prefers cooler climates and can be difficult to extract adequate colour and tannin at high yields
How may high-volume, inexpensive red wines be labelled? (give an example)
‘Fruity Red’
What is the broad flavour style in which high-volume red wines are usually made?
Fruity and low-tannin
How are fresh, fruity aromas retained in high-volume red wines?
SO2
The juice is handled protectively with SO2 levels being monitored throughout
What adjustment will usually need to be made for inexpensive red wines?
ADDING ACIDITY
Tartaric acid will usually be needed due to the warm growing climate usually experienced
Which process may or may not occur just before fermentation when making inexpensive red wine? Why may it not be used?
MACERATION
It can tie-up vat space and so may not be feasible in a high throughput winery
What kind of yeast will usually be used for inexpensive red wines?
COMMERCIAL YEAST
What temperature will fermentation usually be performed at when making inexpensive red wine?
With what aim?
LOWER END: 22 - 25C
To maximise fresh fruit aromas
How often will cap-management take place in inexpensive red wines?
It varies dependant on style, but typically the cap will not be heavily worked
How typical is post-fermentation maceration in the production of high-volume, inexpensive red wine? Why?
NOT usually used, because TIME IS MONEY & NO TANNIN
It’s not usually used, due to constraints on vat space and time. Plus, this can extract additional tannins which are not usually desirable in this style of wine
How may a winemaker for inexpensive reds approach giving more structure to a wine?
MACERATE SMALL PORTION & BLEND
They may macerate a small portion of the wine after fermentation and blend this as necessary later
Which other vinification techniques may be used to create FRUITY inexpensive red wines?
Which high-volume wines are most commonly made in this way?
Carbonic and semi-carbonic maceration
Inexpensive Grenache and Basic Beaujolais
Which maturation options are available to a winemaker creating inexpensive red wines? (3)
- Stainless steel (pure fruit flavours)
- Stainless steel with Oak staves/chips (for quick toasty flavours)
- Short oak ageing (smooth tannins and add oak characteristics) - older oak and max few months
What is the role of SO2 in inexpensive red wines prior to bottling?
SO2 levels are topped up to reduce chances of OXIDATION despite the short shelf-life
Describe the viticultural characteristics of the Cabernet Sauvignon grape
skin, ripening
It is thick-skinned and late-ripening
What is the effect on flavour of Cabernet Sauvignon not ripening properly? (2)
Wines can be
- Astringent
- Herbaceous
Of which area is Cabernet Sauvignon the classic grape?
Haut-Medoc in Bordeaux
Describe the range of flavours/styles that Cabernet gives in the Haut-Medoc
Young: tannins, 2 flavours
Aged: tannins
In youth: Grippy tannins. Cedar and Blackcurrant leaf.
With age: Softer tannins. More expression.
What is the effect of Merlot on Cabernet-based wines?
flavour, texture
It gives juicy plum flavours and a smoother texture
Where else in Europe is Cabernet most notably found? (3)
- South of France
- Italy
- Spain
How are Cabernet-based wines usually made in non-Bordeaux areas of Europe? (2)
- Blended with INDIGENOUS varieties
2. Single Variety
Name 2 European varieties other than Merlot with which Cabernet is often blended outside of France?
- Sangiovese (Italy)
2. Tempranillo (Spain)
What styles/flavours are achieved by Cabernet in the warmer non-European areas? (3)
- Full-bodies wines
- Smooth tannins
- Blackcurrant and black cherry
List some classic regions for the non-European production of Cabernet Sauvignon
5 countries, 1 region each
- California: Napa Valley
- Australia: Coonawarra and Margaret River
- New Zealand: Hawke’s Bay
- South Africa: Stellenbosch
- Chile: Colchagua Valley
What is the typical range of fermentation temperatures for Cabernet Sauvignon?
What is the aim of fermenting at these temperatures?
26C to 30C
High enough to achieve satisfactory levels of extraction
Cool enough to promote fresh fruit flavour
What approach is taken towards temperature and cap management when fermenting/vinifying Cabernet Sauvignon? (2)
Why?
When is this especially important to consider?
- High temperatures are avoided
- Less extractive cap management is used
Because the grapes are high in tannin
If the tannins are unripe
How may more gentle tannin extraction and tannin-softening be achieved when vinifying Cabernet Sauvignon?
A period of POST-FERMENTATION MACERATION
How much new oak can be used when vinifying Cabernet? Why?
A high proportion of new oak can be used
Due to the grape’s intense flavours, medium to full body and high tannins
What kind of oak vessel is widely used for Cabernet wines?
French 225L barriques
How long can Cabernet mature in oak for? What’s typical?
From six months to three/four years
12 to 18 months is typical
Which features of Cabernet make it less suitable for a single-varietal wine? (2)
- HIGH TANNINS
2. LACK of BODY (sometimes)
What often plays the role of Merlot in Australian Cabernet blends?
Shiraz
What is considered the ‘other’ great grape of Bordeaux?
Merlot
How does Merlot compare with Cabernet in the vineyard?
budding, ripening
It buds and ripens earlier than Cabernet
In which areas of Bordeaux is Merlot dominant?
Saint-Emilion and Pomerol
RIGHT BANK
Merlot ‘INTERNATIONAL STYLE’
List the key points (5)
harvest, colour, flavour, tannins, oak
- Grapes harvested as late as possible
- Intense purple colour
- Concentrated blackberry and plum fruit
- Soft, velvety tannins
- Matured in new oak for toasty flavours
Where is the international style of Merlot often made? (3)
- Many new world countries
- South of France
- Some Bordeaux estates
Merlot ‘BORDEAUX STYLE’
List the key points (5)
harvest, body, acidity, flavour, aromas
- Harvested earlier
- Medium body and alcohol
- Higher acidity
- Fresh red fruit character
- Some vegetal, leafy aromas
Where is the traditional style of Merlot often found?
Rarely outside of Bordeaux
Describe the key viticultural characteristics of Pinot Noir
skin, budding, ripening
- Thin-skinned
- Early budding
- Early ripening
What is the consequence of Pinot Noir being such an old variety?
There are many clones with varying characteristics
List two styles into which Pinot Noir can be made
- Light and fruity with red cherry notes
2. Complex and earthy with flavours of spice and forest floor
What is the big challenge of vinifying Pinot Noir in the winery?
Extracting maximum COLOUR and TANNIN without overworking the juice
Why is it important not to overwork the juice of Pinot Noir?
The elegance of the primary aromas can be lost or overwhelmed
Which climates is Pinot Noir best grown in? Why?
Cool to moderate climates
It is an early ripening variety
Describe entry-level red Burgundy wines
Very LIGHT with marked acidity and a hint of OAK for structure
Describe red wines from the better sites in the Cote d’Or
Greater intensity and complexity than cheaper alternatives with flavours ranging from delicate and floral, to spicy and more tannic
What is the risk of Pinot Noir being grown in cooler environments/years?
They may not ripen fully, leading to vegetal notes like cabbage and wet leaves
Where else in Europe is well known for high-quality Pinot Noir? (1)
BADEN in Germany
List some regions in the new world which produce high quality Pinot Noir
5 countries, 1 or 2 regions per country
- California: Los Carneros and Sonoma
- New Zealand: Martinborough, Marlborough and Central Otago
- Australia: Yarra Valley, Mornington Peninsula and Tasmania
- South Africa: Walker Bay
- Chile: Casablanca Valley
What happens to the flavours of Pinot Noir if its climate is too hot?
Flavours become JAMMY and unattractive
What will typically happen to Pinot Noir before fermentation?
PRE-FERMENTATION MACERATION to maximise colour and flavour EXTRACTION
What fermentation method is becoming increasingly popular when fermenting Pinot Noir?
What does this achieve?
Using whole bunches
It generally enhances red fruit and floral characters
What fermentation temperature is common for Pinot Noir?
Above 30C
Why is Pinot Noir often fermented at such high temperatures?
EXTRACTION of more colour, flavour and tannin for longer aged wines
When may Pinot Noir be fermented at cooler temperatures?
For lighter, fresher styles
Which post fermentation practice in the winery is not widely used for Pinot Noir?
Post-fermentation maceration
Describe oak usage when making Pinot Noir wines
It is COMMON, with premium examples spending 12 - 24 months in oak.
Delicate flavours can be overpowered by oak, so 2ND and 3RD fill barrels are often used and only a small proportion of new oak
With which varieties is Pinot Noir usually blended?
It’s not usually blended
What is the aim of blending different treatments/plots of Pinot Noir?
To increase COMPLEXITY or improve CONSISTENCY
Describe the best Pinot Noir wines?
They can develop in bottle for many years
Gain flavours of forest floor and mushroom
What is the role of oak in Rose winemaking?
It’s rarely used
What are the 3 main methods of Rose wine production?
- Direct Pressing
- Short Maceration
- Blending
Briefly describe the ‘direct pressing’ method of Rose wine production
Black grapes are crushed and pressed in the same way as for white wine, extracting a little colour
What style of Rose does direct pressing create?
The most delicately coloured
What is the danger when using the direct pressing method of creating Rose?
That TOO MUCH TANNIN will be extracted
Describe short maceration as a process of creating Rose wines (4)
- Black grapes are allowed to macerate for a short time to extract colour and flavour
- Maceration may or may not continue into fermentation
- Free run juice is drained off
- Fermentation continues at a cool temperature
Where in the EU is blending permitted as a means of creating Rose?
For Rose Champagne
Describe Syrah
grape size, skin, ripening
- Small grapes
- Thick, dark skins
- Will not ripen in cool climate
Describe 2 Syrah styles
- Medium bodied, pepper, fresh black fruit
2. Smooth, full bodied, very ripe black fruit+liquorice
Describe Northern Rhone style Syrah
body, flavour, tannin
- Quite light wine
- Simple black fruit, herbaceous flavours
- Grippy tannins.
Describe Cote Rotie and Hermitage style Syrah
body, flavour
- Full body
2. Berry flavours, pepper, notes of meat and leather
Name 4 blending partners for Syrah in Languedoc and Roussillon.
- Grenache
- Mourvedre
- Cinsault
- Carignan
Name new world Shiraz producing regions.
6 countries
- Oz: Hunter Valley, Barossa Valley
- Oz: Great Southern, Geelong, Heathcote
- Chile
- SA
- NZ, Hawke’s Bay
- USA, Washington State
Describe Grenache/Garnacha
ripening, climate, skin, alcohol, acidity, body, flavour
- Late ripening
- Needs warm or hot climates - High drought tolerance
- Thin skinned
- High alcohol
- Low acidity
- Full bodied
- Red fruit flavours
In what Spain region is Garnacha blended with Carignan?
Priorat
What is Garnacha blended with in Priorat?
Carignan
In what Spain region is Garnacha blended with Tempranillo?
Rioja, mainly Rioja Baja
Name 4 regions in Spain that widely grow Grenacha
- Calatayud
- Carinena
- Navarra
- Rioja
Where in France is Grenache most widely planted? (2)
- Southern Rhone
2. Languedoc and Roussillon
What are the most common Grenache blending partners in France?
- Syrah
- Mourvedre
- Cinsault
- Carignan
What Australian regions produce high quality Grenache? (2)
Barossa Valley, McLaren Vale
