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biology end of year final Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

protein synthesis

A

the process of reading intructions in dna to make a polypeptide

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2
Q

polypeptide

A

-a chain of amino acids
-can bind to other and fold into a protein

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3
Q

transcription

A

dna is copied into a complementary strand of mrna

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4
Q

genetic code

A

code of instructions fo rhow to make proteins

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5
Q

codon

A

a set of 3 nucleotides on the mrna

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6
Q

anticodon

A

complementary 3 nucleotides on the trna

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7
Q

amino acid

A

-monomer (building blocks) for maing proteins
-held togeher by peptide bonds

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8
Q

translation

A

interpreting the rna message into a polypeptide to make a protein

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9
Q

what are the steps of transcription?

A

-happens in the nucleus
-gene that needs to be copied is unzipped
-the nucleotides are complementary base-paired for a new strand of mrna
-the strand is released
-dna zips back up
-molecule leaves the nucleus

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10
Q

what are the steps of translation?

A

-occurs in the ribosomes/ cytoplasm
-mrna attaches toa ribosome
-reads the mrna codon starting at aug
-trna’s drop off the amino acids that go with each codon
-the ribosome binds them together to make a polypeptide chain

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11
Q

what are two things on trna?

A

-amino acid
-anticodon

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12
Q

what are complementary base-pairing rules for mrna?

A

-a goes to u
-t goes to a
-g goes to c
-c goes to g

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13
Q

what is the role of mrna in protein synthesis?

A

-copies intruction in dna
-carries them out to the ribosomes

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14
Q

what is the role of trna in protein synthesis?

A

-binds and carries specific amino acids to the ribosome

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15
Q

what is the role of rrna in protien synthesis?

A

-along with protiens make up ribosme
-help catalyze formation of specific bonds

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16
Q

what would happen if there were an error in transcription or translation?

A

-it will get the codon wrong
-will code fo the wrong amino acid and protein

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17
Q

diploid

A

-cells with two full sets of chromosomes
-2n
-46 in humans
-somatic cells

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18
Q

haploid

A

-1 full set of chromosomes
-n
-23 in humans
-gametes/ sex cells

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19
Q

meiosis

A

process of cell division that creates gametes in the gonads

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20
Q

sexual reproduction

A

-organisms that reproduce secually fuse the genetic information from two parents
-creates offsrping that are genetically unique

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21
Q

fertilization

A

the actual fusion of the egg and sperm to form a zygote

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22
Q

homologus chromosomes

A

-chromosome paris that have the same types of genes
-1 set from mom and 1 from dad

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23
Q

sister chromatids

A

-2 identical copies of the same chromosome
-X

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24
Q

autosomes

A

-carry traits that make you who you are
-1st 22 pairs

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25
Q

sex chromosomes

A

-the 23rd pair of chromosomes
-xx or xy
-determine your sex

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26
Q

meiosis I

A

-separation of homologus chromosomes
-interphase and pmat one time
-end result is two haploid daughter cells with dupicated chromosomes

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27
Q

meiosis II

A

-separation of sister chromatids
-pmat one time
-end result is four haploid daughter cells that are genetically unique

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28
Q

why does meiosis go through pmat twice?

A

-becuase it has to divide tiwce
-the sex cells have to have half the number of chromosomes
-they will merge with another that also has half so it can have the correct number

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29
Q

what is the purpose of meiosis vs the purpose of meisosis?

A

-meiosis: make sex cells for reproduction
-mitosis: make somatic cells for growth and repair

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30
Q

what would happen if there was a mistake in meiosis vs a mistake in mitosis?

A

-meiosis: cause your cell toe end up with an extra chromosome (or your baby)
-mitosis: cause the number of the chromosomes in your cells to be off forever

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31
Q

interphase I

A

-dna replication
-cell growth

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32
Q

prophase I

A

-crossing over
-nuclear membrane breaks down
-homologus chromosomes pair up
-spindle fibers appear

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33
Q

metaphase I

A

-homologus chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell

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34
Q

anaphase I

A

-homologus chromosome pairs separate

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35
Q

telophase I

A

-chromosomes gather at poles
-nuclear membrane may return

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36
Q

cytokinesis I

A

-cytoplasm divides into two cells

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37
Q

prophase II

A

-nuclear membrane reforms
-spindle fibers form
-spindle fibers attach at chromosomes

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38
Q

metaphase II

A

-sister chromatids line up single file

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39
Q

anaphase II

A

-sister chromatids separate

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40
Q

telophase II

A

-nuclear membrane forms around each sert of chromosomes
-spindle fibers dissolve

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41
Q

cytokinesis

A

-cytoplasm divides each cell into two
-creates 4 cells

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42
Q

meiosis vs mitosis: what, when, where, result, and type of reproduction

A

-mitosis what: creation of diploid somatic cells
-meiosis what: ceration of haploid sex cells
-mitosis when: throughout your life
-meisosi when: females before you’re born, men throughout your life
-mitosis where: throughout your body
-meiosis where: in ovaries and testes
-mitosis result: 2 identical diploid somatic cells
-meiosis result: 4 unique haploid sex cells
-mitosis reproduction: asexual
-meiosis reproduction: sexual

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43
Q

gene

A

a section of dna that provides the instructions for making a protein

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44
Q

alleles

A

different versions of the same gene

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45
Q

homozygous

A

-2 of the same alleles
-ex. AA or aa

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46
Q

heterozygous

A

-2 different alleles
-ex. Aa

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47
Q

dominant

A

if present, allele will always have that trait expressed/ seen

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48
Q

recessive

A

allele will only have htat trait expressed when the dominante allele is not present

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49
Q

genotype

A

-the actual alleles inherited
-ex. FF, Ff, and ff

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50
Q

phenotype

A

-the physical trait seen
-ex. purple flowers

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51
Q

law of segregation

A

-when chromosomes separate in meisos each gamete will recieve only one chromosome from each pair

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52
Q

law of independent assortment

A

-the assortment of chromosomes for one trait doesn’t affect the assortment of the chromocomes for another

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53
Q

chromosome tgheory of inheritance

A

-genes are located on chromosmes and the behavior of chromosomes during meisois accournts of inheritance pattersn

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54
Q

incomplete dominance

A

-the heterozygous phenotype is somehwere between the two homozygous phenotypes
-neither allele is domiant or recessive
-ex. HH is straight hair, H’H’ is curly hair, and HH’ is wavy hair
-ex. pink flowers

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55
Q

codominance

A

-both traits are fully and separetly expressed
-ex. WW is white cow, BB is black cow, BW is spotted cow
-ex. speckled chicken
-ex. blood type (AB is fully A and fully B)

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56
Q

multiple alleles

A

-having more than two alleles for none gene
-ex. A, B, and i alleles for blood type

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57
Q

polygenic traits

A

-a trait produced by two or more genes
-usually shows a range in phenotype
-ex. height
-ex. eye color

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58
Q

linked genes

A

-genes that are physically loctaed on the same chromosome will be inherited together
-ex. blond hair and blue eyes

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59
Q

epistatis

A

-when one gene overshadows another gene and blocks the output
-ex. albinism

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60
Q

carrier

A

-a person that has the gene for a trait or disease but doesn’t show it
-ex. having one copy of the trait for color blindness

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61
Q

sex linked genes

A

-genes that travel on the c chromosome
-boys only need 1 copy to be affected

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62
Q

mutation

A

-any change in dna
-ex. the order of the nucleotide bases /letters

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63
Q

mutagen

A

-chemicals that can cause dna mutations
-ex. radiation

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64
Q

gene mutation

A

-happen during dna replication
-cause a change to the orginal dna sequence

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65
Q

point mutation

A

-substitute one nucleotide for another
-ex. sickle cell anemia

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66
Q

frameshift mutation

A

-the insertion or deletion of a nucleotide
-ex. ATTACC—> ATACC

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67
Q

chromosomal mutation

A

-often happen during meiosis
-changing the number or location of genes
-ex. down syndrome

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68
Q

duplication

A

-changes the size of chromosomes
-results in multiple copies of a single gene

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69
Q

translocation

A

-pieces of non-homologus chromosomes exchange segments
-can happen during crossing over

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70
Q

nondisjunction

A

-chromosomes do not separate correctly during anaphase
-results in one or three chromosomes per cell

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71
Q

pedigree

A

-char used ot trace the phenotypes and genotypes in a family
-can help determine whether people carry diseases or traits

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72
Q

is a mutation in a somatic cell or a gamete worse? why?

A

-gamete
-the mutation will be in every cell of the baby’s body
-a mutation in a somatic cell will only be in that cell

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73
Q

is a mutation ina a gene or chromosome worse? why?

A

-chromosome
-there are many genes on a chromosome
-it will effect more dna

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74
Q

autosomal recesive trait (pedigree)

A

-most common inheritance patter for genetic diseases
-diesease will be rare in family
-often skips generations
ex. sickle cell anemia, cystic fibrosis

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75
Q

autosomal dominant

A

-disease will be common in family
-never skips a generation
-ex. huntington’s dieseas, neurofibromatosis

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76
Q

sex-linked recessive

A

-diesease will be rare in the family
-more males will be affected than females
-affected fathers do not pass on to their sons (they have to pass on they y, the mom gives the x)
-ex. meophilia, colorblindness

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77
Q

evolution

A

-the process of biologiacl change in populations over time
-causes descendants to e genetically different from their ancestors

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78
Q

microevolution

A

-occurs on a small scale
-affects a sigle population

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79
Q

macroevolution

A

-occurs on a large scale
-changes across several populations

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80
Q

natural selection

A

-organisms with the “best” traits will live longer and reproduce more
-will cause changes in the population over time
-acts on traits that are heritable

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81
Q

fittness

A

-a measure of how well you can survive in your environment

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82
Q

what are the 4 principles of natural selection?

A

-overproduction of offsrping
-variation
-adaptation
-descent with modification

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83
Q

overproduction of offspring

A

-lots of offsrping + limited resources = competition for resources

84
Q

variation (definition and sources)

A

-diferences in the physical traits of an organism
-sources are random mutations, genetic recombunation, and migration (gene flow)
-random mutations are the ultimate source because they can happen across any population

85
Q

adaptation

A

-a feature that allows an organism to better survive in its environment
-better traits will become mroe common bc organisms that have them will live longer and reproduce more
-changes the gene pool

86
Q

gene pool

A

combined alleles of all individuals in a population

87
Q

descent with modification

A

-a change in gene frequency over time
-leads to populations with ne phenoytpes adapted to new situations

88
Q

what are the mechanisms of microevolution?

A

-mutations
-natural selection
-genetic drift
-gene flow
-sexual selection

89
Q

genetic drift

A

-random change in the frquency of alleles in a population over time

90
Q

gene flow

A

-movement of genes into/out of a population
-occurs during migration
-resluts in an increate in genetic variation in the population

91
Q

sexual selection

A

-the selection of traits that aren’t necessarily good for survival fittness
-without them you can’t pass on genes because you can’t reproduce

92
Q

genetic equilibrium/ hardy- weinberg

A

-when there are no changes in the allele frequencies in a population over time

93
Q

evolution will not occur if…

A

-populations large
-must be random mating
-no migration
-no mutations
-no natural selection

94
Q

why do the five characteritics of hardy-weinberg equilibrium never occur?

A

-because these characteristics are not possible
-its literally impossible to have all of these things, especially at one time

95
Q

what to say for principles of natural selection q’s

A

-over pop of offspring- number of surviving over total
-variation- two characteristics
-adaptation- the better charactersitic
-descent w mod- over time, better characteristic will live longer and reproduce mroe

96
Q

speciation

A

-forming a new specie by evolution from a pre-existing species

97
Q

species

A

a group of organisms that can successfully interbreed and prodcue viable, fertile offspring

98
Q

extinction

A

the elimination of a species

99
Q

gradual extinction

A

-occurs at a slow rate
-ex. changes in climate, natural disasters

100
Q

mass extinction

A

-occurs when a catsrophic event changes the environment suddenly
-ex. massive volcano, meteor

101
Q

gradualism

A

-the slwo, constant chagnes over a long period of time
-ex. the gradual evolution of peppered moths becoming darker over time

102
Q

punctuated equilibrium

A

-burst of chagne followed by periods of stability
-ex. changes to the mammal population during teh meozoic and paelozoic eras

103
Q

divergent evolution

A

-a number of different species arise from one common ancestor
-new environment caused diffrences to evolve in populations

104
Q

adaptive radiation

A

-a type of divergent evolution occuring on a small scale over a shrorter period of time

105
Q

convergent evolution

A

-when unrelated specied evolve similar characteristics because they live in similar enbironments
-ex. eagle, bat, teradactyle

106
Q

coevolution

A

-occurs when two populations of organisms form a specialized realtionship and thus change in response to each other
-ex. flowers and insects that pollinate them

107
Q

homologus strucures

A

-similar structures taht suggest evidence of common ancestry
-divergent evolution

108
Q

analogus structures

A

-similar structures that evolves independenty in different organisms due to serving similar purpose (simliar environments)
-convergent evolution

109
Q

vestigal structures

A

-structures with little or no function to an organsim
-used to have function

110
Q

palentology

A

-study of prehistoric life through the fossil record
-the fossil record reveals a history of the types of organisms that have livged on earth
-we can also use transitional fossils that link ancestral species to their descendants
-ex. archaeopteryx

111
Q

morphology

A

-study of the form of living things (the antomy or structures of an organism)

112
Q

biogeography

A

-the study of the geographic dirturbution of plants and animals
-the distribution of organisms line up with what has been discovered about continental drift and pangea
-spiecies in nearby geographic areas may resemble each other
-possible eveidence of divergent evolution

113
Q

endemic species

A

species that exist only in one geographic region
ex. galapagos tortises

114
Q

embryology

A

-study of emryo development
-similarities in the embryos of vertebrates early in deveopment suggest common ancester among vertebrates

115
Q

biochemistry

A

-study of chemical processes in living things
-analyzing dna and proteins from different species lets us compare similarities and predict common ancestry

116
Q

pseudogenes

A

-nonfucntional genes
-don’t code for anything
-vestigal structures of your dna
-provide eviedence of divergent evolution

117
Q

direct observation

A

microevolution that has been directly observes due to occuring in populations with short life spans that reproduce quickly

118
Q

taxonomy

A

-field of biology that classifies organisms
-groups organisms by shared characterisitics

119
Q

carolus linnaeus

A

-father of taxonomy
-created bionomial nomenclature

120
Q

bionomial nomenclature

A

-2 name naming system
-genus species

121
Q

what are the 3 domains of life?

A

-eubacteria (prokaryotes) ex. ecoli
-archaebacteria (prokaryotes in extreme envionments) ex. halophileds, thermophiles
-eukarya (eukaryotes) ex. plants, animals, fungi, protists

122
Q

how are the domains broken down?

A

-domain
-kingdom
-phylum
-class
-order
-family
-genus
-species

123
Q

phylogeny

A

-evolutionary history of a species

124
Q

enosymbiosis

A

-one prokaryote ended up inside of another and both organisms thrived
-(how eukaaryotes came to be)

125
Q

phylogenic trees

A
  • a diagram used to predict evolutinoary relationships among groups of organims
126
Q

what can we learn for a phylogenetic tree?

A

-which groups are most closely related
-which grouos are least cloesly related
-which groups diverged first

127
Q

ecology

A

the study of relationships between two organisms/ between an organism and ites environment

128
Q

metabolism

A

-all of the chemical reactions in each cell in an organism
-provide energy for life’s key processes
-create key molecules

129
Q

organims

A

-individual memeber of a species of population
-ex. 1 deer

130
Q

population

A

-multiple organisms of the same species living togther
-ex. all of the deer in a field

131
Q

community

A

-multiple populations of different species living together
-ex. all of the deer squirrels, birds, and plants in a field

132
Q

ecosystem

A

-community plus all abiotic factors in the environment
-ex. all deer, squirrels, birds, plants, and rain in a field

133
Q

biome

A

-multiple ecosytstmes that share similar characterisitics
-located on different parts of the planet
-ex. grassland

134
Q

biosphere

A

-the zone of life on earth
-encompasses all of earth’s ecosystems

135
Q

biodiverstiry

A

-the variety of organisms considered at all levels
-from populations to ecosystem

136
Q

cladogram

A

-diagram that shows relatedness
-does not show ancestral relationship like phylogenic tree

137
Q

dichotomous key

A

-tool used for identifying organisms based on their charcteristics

138
Q

what are the seven characterisitcs of life?

A

-be composed of one or ore cells
-contain dna or rna (genetic material)
-be able to grow
-be able to reproduce
-be able to respond to stimuli
-be able to adapt as a population
-have a metabloism

139
Q

biotic

A

living

140
Q

abiotic

A

nonliving

141
Q

what is an example of a stimulus and response?

A

sunflowers growing facing east (response) to face the sunrise (stimuli)

142
Q

what are the six levels of ecological succession?

A

-organism
-population
-community
-ecosystem
-biome
-biosphere

143
Q

biogeochemical cycles

A

represent the movement of a particular form of matter through the lving and nonliving parts of an ecosystem

144
Q

aquifer

A

an underground layer of permeable rock that can hold water

145
Q

eutrophication

A

-when a body of water becomes overly enriches with nutrients
-causes escessive algea growth

146
Q

what are the stages of the water cycle?

A

-precipitation
-infiltration
-runoff
-evaporation
-transpiration
-condensation

147
Q

what are the stages of the carbon cycle?

A

-photosynthesis
-cellular respiration
-consumption
-decompostion
-combustion
-fossilization

148
Q

what are the stages of the nitrogen cycle?

A

-nitrogen fixation (when nitrgoen is converted into a form plants can use)
-consumption
-decomposition
-ammonification (bacteria convert nitrogen from waste into ammonia)
-nitrification (convert nitrogen in ammonia to nitrates to be absorbed by plants)
-denitrification (bacteria converts nitrogen to the atmospheric form)

149
Q

what are some human impacts on the water cycle?

A

-deforestation decreases transpiration
-building/paving increases runoff and decreases inflitration
-pollution
-eutrophicatoin

150
Q

what are some living organisms’ impact of the water cycle?

A

-take in water
-eliminate water
-cell respiration
-photosynthesis

151
Q

what are some ways humans impact the carbon cycle?

A

-combustion causes a major increase of co2 in the atmosphere

152
Q

what are some ways living organisms impact the carbon cycle?

A

-decomposters break down materials and return carbon to the soil
-photosythnethis removes carbon from the air
-cell respiration

153
Q

what are soem human impacts on the nitrogen cycle?

A

-fertilizers add way too much nitrogen to the soil causing an imbalanc
-combustion

154
Q

what are some impacts of living organisms on the nitrogen cycle?

A

-bacteria does almost everything in the nitrogen cycle

155
Q

what is the driving force behind the water cycle?

A

he sun

156
Q

what is the organims most essential to the nitrogen cycle?

A

bacteria

157
Q

what is the only step in the water cycle that involves a living organims?

A

transpiratoin

158
Q

what are three places you can find carbon?

A

macromolcules, fossil fuels, and the atomosphere

159
Q

population density

A

measures the number of indvidual organisms lving in a defined space

160
Q

suvivorship curve

A

a graphic represenattion of mortaility rates (shows the number of indivuals in a population that can be expected ot survive any specific age)

161
Q

exponential growth

A

population grows without limit (ex. humans)

162
Q

logistic growth

A

population gorws quickly at first and then levels off (ex. most natural populations -rabbits)

163
Q

carrying capacity

A

the theoretical maxiumum population that a given environment can support

164
Q

limiting factors

A

aspects of the enironment that limit the size a population cna reach

165
Q

density dependent

A

have a bigger impact on more dnese populations (ex. predatoin, competiton, desease)

166
Q

density indeoendent

A

regulate populationgrowth regardless of size or density (ex.natural disasters, weather changes, pollution)

167
Q

what two things increase population density?

A

birth and immigartaion

168
Q

what two things decrease population density?

A

death adn emigration

169
Q

what are the three types of dispersion types?

A

random, uniform, and clumped

170
Q

type 1 suvivorship curve

A

late loss, less offspring, heavy parental care, ex. humans

171
Q

type 2 suvivorship curve

A

constant loss, mortality unaffected by age, less parental care (ex. birds)

172
Q

type 2 suvivorhsip curve

A

early loss, prodcue lots of offsprign, many die right away (ex. mosquitos)

173
Q

sustainablity

A

a balance between earth’s resouces, human needs, and the needs of other species

174
Q

ecologial footprint

A

the amount of carbon emitted and its environmental imoact

175
Q

renewable resource

A

resources that are produced or replenished more quickly than they are consumes (ex. oxygen, wood, water, sunlight, wind)

176
Q

nonrenewable resource

A

resources that are consumed/ used more quicley than they are produced (ex. fossil fuels, metal, plastic)

177
Q

agricultural techonolgy goal

A

increase food productivity

178
Q

alternativde energy techonlogy goal

A

provide “clean” energy to power society without negatively influencing the atmospehre

179
Q

what are some examples of clean energy?

A

sunlight, water, wind, muclear

180
Q

what is the gaol of industrial technology

A

increase maufaturing effeciency, transportation,a dn communication

181
Q

what are cfc’s?

A

-chloroflurocarbons
-dlepte the ozone layer

182
Q

greenhouse effect

A

the normal warmign when gases trap heat in the atmosperhere

183
Q

what are some exaples of greenhosue gases?

A

co2, o2, ch4, h20

184
Q

ecological succession

A

the proccess of ecological change in an ecosystem where one community is replaced by another over t me

185
Q

primary succession

A

formation of a brand ndw ecoystem (ex. volcanic explosion, glacier melt, eroded sand)

186
Q

secondary succession

A

recovery of an odl ecosystem (ex. fire, farming, hurricane)

187
Q

pioneer species

A

the first organisms to grow in a new enivronment

188
Q

climax community

A

a mature and stable community of plants and naimals (reacheed towards the end of succession)

189
Q

stable ecosystem

A

an ecosystem that remeains relatively constant with predictable changes

190
Q

what is the main difference between primary succession and secondary succession

A

in primary sucession soil has to be formed but it is already there in secondary successon

191
Q

what are some pioneer species in primary succession?

A

lichena nd moss

192
Q

what are some pioneer species in secondary succession?

A

weeds and grasses

193
Q

habitat

A

the actual area in the ecosystme where an organism lives, including all of its abiotic and biotic resources

194
Q

niche

A

all of the things an organism needs and does within its habitat

195
Q

predator

A

organism hunting/killing another for food

196
Q

prey

A

organism killed/consumed as food

197
Q

keystone species

A

a species that holds the ecosystem together, it is critcal for the survival of the other species in the eocsystem

198
Q

competitive exclusion principle

A

no 2 organims scan occupy the same niche at the same time

199
Q

symbiosis

A

any interaction that involves a close, physica, long term relationship between 2 different specie (1 species always beneifts, always interspecific)

200
Q

interspecific

A

between two different species

201
Q

intraspecfic

A

in the same species

202
Q

why is competiton not consiered a symbiotic relationship?

A

because competition is short term

203
Q

what are thre three types of symbiotic realtionshps?

A

-commensalism
-parasitism
-mutualism

204
Q

give an example and symbol for parasitism

A

+/-, a tick on a dog

205
Q

give an example and symbol for commensalims

A

+/o, barnacles on muscles

206
Q

give an example and symbol for mutualism

A

+/+, clownfisha nd anenome

biology (11 decks)

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