biology end of year final Flashcards
protein synthesis
the process of reading intructions in dna to make a polypeptide
polypeptide
-a chain of amino acids
-can bind to other and fold into a protein
transcription
dna is copied into a complementary strand of mrna
genetic code
code of instructions fo rhow to make proteins
codon
a set of 3 nucleotides on the mrna
anticodon
complementary 3 nucleotides on the trna
amino acid
-monomer (building blocks) for maing proteins
-held togeher by peptide bonds
translation
interpreting the rna message into a polypeptide to make a protein
what are the steps of transcription?
-happens in the nucleus
-gene that needs to be copied is unzipped
-the nucleotides are complementary base-paired for a new strand of mrna
-the strand is released
-dna zips back up
-molecule leaves the nucleus
what are the steps of translation?
-occurs in the ribosomes/ cytoplasm
-mrna attaches toa ribosome
-reads the mrna codon starting at aug
-trna’s drop off the amino acids that go with each codon
-the ribosome binds them together to make a polypeptide chain
what are two things on trna?
-amino acid
-anticodon
what are complementary base-pairing rules for mrna?
-a goes to u
-t goes to a
-g goes to c
-c goes to g
what is the role of mrna in protein synthesis?
-copies intruction in dna
-carries them out to the ribosomes
what is the role of trna in protein synthesis?
-binds and carries specific amino acids to the ribosome
what is the role of rrna in protien synthesis?
-along with protiens make up ribosme
-help catalyze formation of specific bonds
what would happen if there were an error in transcription or translation?
-it will get the codon wrong
-will code fo the wrong amino acid and protein
diploid
-cells with two full sets of chromosomes
-2n
-46 in humans
-somatic cells
haploid
-1 full set of chromosomes
-n
-23 in humans
-gametes/ sex cells
meiosis
process of cell division that creates gametes in the gonads
sexual reproduction
-organisms that reproduce secually fuse the genetic information from two parents
-creates offsrping that are genetically unique
fertilization
the actual fusion of the egg and sperm to form a zygote
homologus chromosomes
-chromosome paris that have the same types of genes
-1 set from mom and 1 from dad
sister chromatids
-2 identical copies of the same chromosome
-X
autosomes
-carry traits that make you who you are
-1st 22 pairs
sex chromosomes
-the 23rd pair of chromosomes
-xx or xy
-determine your sex
meiosis I
-separation of homologus chromosomes
-interphase and pmat one time
-end result is two haploid daughter cells with dupicated chromosomes
meiosis II
-separation of sister chromatids
-pmat one time
-end result is four haploid daughter cells that are genetically unique
why does meiosis go through pmat twice?
-becuase it has to divide tiwce
-the sex cells have to have half the number of chromosomes
-they will merge with another that also has half so it can have the correct number
what is the purpose of meiosis vs the purpose of meisosis?
-meiosis: make sex cells for reproduction
-mitosis: make somatic cells for growth and repair
what would happen if there was a mistake in meiosis vs a mistake in mitosis?
-meiosis: cause your cell toe end up with an extra chromosome (or your baby)
-mitosis: cause the number of the chromosomes in your cells to be off forever
interphase I
-dna replication
-cell growth
prophase I
-crossing over
-nuclear membrane breaks down
-homologus chromosomes pair up
-spindle fibers appear
metaphase I
-homologus chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell
anaphase I
-homologus chromosome pairs separate
telophase I
-chromosomes gather at poles
-nuclear membrane may return
cytokinesis I
-cytoplasm divides into two cells
prophase II
-nuclear membrane reforms
-spindle fibers form
-spindle fibers attach at chromosomes
metaphase II
-sister chromatids line up single file
anaphase II
-sister chromatids separate
telophase II
-nuclear membrane forms around each sert of chromosomes
-spindle fibers dissolve
cytokinesis
-cytoplasm divides each cell into two
-creates 4 cells
meiosis vs mitosis: what, when, where, result, and type of reproduction
-mitosis what: creation of diploid somatic cells
-meiosis what: ceration of haploid sex cells
-mitosis when: throughout your life
-meisosi when: females before you’re born, men throughout your life
-mitosis where: throughout your body
-meiosis where: in ovaries and testes
-mitosis result: 2 identical diploid somatic cells
-meiosis result: 4 unique haploid sex cells
-mitosis reproduction: asexual
-meiosis reproduction: sexual
gene
a section of dna that provides the instructions for making a protein
alleles
different versions of the same gene
homozygous
-2 of the same alleles
-ex. AA or aa
heterozygous
-2 different alleles
-ex. Aa
dominant
if present, allele will always have that trait expressed/ seen
recessive
allele will only have htat trait expressed when the dominante allele is not present
genotype
-the actual alleles inherited
-ex. FF, Ff, and ff
phenotype
-the physical trait seen
-ex. purple flowers
law of segregation
-when chromosomes separate in meisos each gamete will recieve only one chromosome from each pair
law of independent assortment
-the assortment of chromosomes for one trait doesn’t affect the assortment of the chromocomes for another
chromosome tgheory of inheritance
-genes are located on chromosmes and the behavior of chromosomes during meisois accournts of inheritance pattersn
incomplete dominance
-the heterozygous phenotype is somehwere between the two homozygous phenotypes
-neither allele is domiant or recessive
-ex. HH is straight hair, H’H’ is curly hair, and HH’ is wavy hair
-ex. pink flowers
codominance
-both traits are fully and separetly expressed
-ex. WW is white cow, BB is black cow, BW is spotted cow
-ex. speckled chicken
-ex. blood type (AB is fully A and fully B)
multiple alleles
-having more than two alleles for none gene
-ex. A, B, and i alleles for blood type
polygenic traits
-a trait produced by two or more genes
-usually shows a range in phenotype
-ex. height
-ex. eye color
linked genes
-genes that are physically loctaed on the same chromosome will be inherited together
-ex. blond hair and blue eyes
epistatis
-when one gene overshadows another gene and blocks the output
-ex. albinism
carrier
-a person that has the gene for a trait or disease but doesn’t show it
-ex. having one copy of the trait for color blindness
sex linked genes
-genes that travel on the c chromosome
-boys only need 1 copy to be affected
mutation
-any change in dna
-ex. the order of the nucleotide bases /letters
mutagen
-chemicals that can cause dna mutations
-ex. radiation
gene mutation
-happen during dna replication
-cause a change to the orginal dna sequence
point mutation
-substitute one nucleotide for another
-ex. sickle cell anemia
frameshift mutation
-the insertion or deletion of a nucleotide
-ex. ATTACC—> ATACC
chromosomal mutation
-often happen during meiosis
-changing the number or location of genes
-ex. down syndrome
duplication
-changes the size of chromosomes
-results in multiple copies of a single gene
translocation
-pieces of non-homologus chromosomes exchange segments
-can happen during crossing over
nondisjunction
-chromosomes do not separate correctly during anaphase
-results in one or three chromosomes per cell
pedigree
-char used ot trace the phenotypes and genotypes in a family
-can help determine whether people carry diseases or traits
is a mutation in a somatic cell or a gamete worse? why?
-gamete
-the mutation will be in every cell of the baby’s body
-a mutation in a somatic cell will only be in that cell
is a mutation ina a gene or chromosome worse? why?
-chromosome
-there are many genes on a chromosome
-it will effect more dna
autosomal recesive trait (pedigree)
-most common inheritance patter for genetic diseases
-diesease will be rare in family
-often skips generations
ex. sickle cell anemia, cystic fibrosis
autosomal dominant
-disease will be common in family
-never skips a generation
-ex. huntington’s dieseas, neurofibromatosis
sex-linked recessive
-diesease will be rare in the family
-more males will be affected than females
-affected fathers do not pass on to their sons (they have to pass on they y, the mom gives the x)
-ex. meophilia, colorblindness
evolution
-the process of biologiacl change in populations over time
-causes descendants to e genetically different from their ancestors
microevolution
-occurs on a small scale
-affects a sigle population
macroevolution
-occurs on a large scale
-changes across several populations
natural selection
-organisms with the “best” traits will live longer and reproduce more
-will cause changes in the population over time
-acts on traits that are heritable
fittness
-a measure of how well you can survive in your environment
what are the 4 principles of natural selection?
-overproduction of offsrping
-variation
-adaptation
-descent with modification
overproduction of offspring
-lots of offsrping + limited resources = competition for resources
variation (definition and sources)
-diferences in the physical traits of an organism
-sources are random mutations, genetic recombunation, and migration (gene flow)
-random mutations are the ultimate source because they can happen across any population
adaptation
-a feature that allows an organism to better survive in its environment
-better traits will become mroe common bc organisms that have them will live longer and reproduce more
-changes the gene pool
gene pool
combined alleles of all individuals in a population
descent with modification
-a change in gene frequency over time
-leads to populations with ne phenoytpes adapted to new situations
what are the mechanisms of microevolution?
-mutations
-natural selection
-genetic drift
-gene flow
-sexual selection
genetic drift
-random change in the frquency of alleles in a population over time
gene flow
-movement of genes into/out of a population
-occurs during migration
-resluts in an increate in genetic variation in the population
sexual selection
-the selection of traits that aren’t necessarily good for survival fittness
-without them you can’t pass on genes because you can’t reproduce
genetic equilibrium/ hardy- weinberg
-when there are no changes in the allele frequencies in a population over time
evolution will not occur if…
-populations large
-must be random mating
-no migration
-no mutations
-no natural selection
why do the five characteritics of hardy-weinberg equilibrium never occur?
-because these characteristics are not possible
-its literally impossible to have all of these things, especially at one time
what to say for principles of natural selection q’s
-over pop of offspring- number of surviving over total
-variation- two characteristics
-adaptation- the better charactersitic
-descent w mod- over time, better characteristic will live longer and reproduce mroe
speciation
-forming a new specie by evolution from a pre-existing species
species
a group of organisms that can successfully interbreed and prodcue viable, fertile offspring
extinction
the elimination of a species
gradual extinction
-occurs at a slow rate
-ex. changes in climate, natural disasters
mass extinction
-occurs when a catsrophic event changes the environment suddenly
-ex. massive volcano, meteor
gradualism
-the slwo, constant chagnes over a long period of time
-ex. the gradual evolution of peppered moths becoming darker over time
punctuated equilibrium
-burst of chagne followed by periods of stability
-ex. changes to the mammal population during teh meozoic and paelozoic eras
divergent evolution
-a number of different species arise from one common ancestor
-new environment caused diffrences to evolve in populations
adaptive radiation
-a type of divergent evolution occuring on a small scale over a shrorter period of time
convergent evolution
-when unrelated specied evolve similar characteristics because they live in similar enbironments
-ex. eagle, bat, teradactyle
coevolution
-occurs when two populations of organisms form a specialized realtionship and thus change in response to each other
-ex. flowers and insects that pollinate them
homologus strucures
-similar structures taht suggest evidence of common ancestry
-divergent evolution
analogus structures
-similar structures that evolves independenty in different organisms due to serving similar purpose (simliar environments)
-convergent evolution
vestigal structures
-structures with little or no function to an organsim
-used to have function
palentology
-study of prehistoric life through the fossil record
-the fossil record reveals a history of the types of organisms that have livged on earth
-we can also use transitional fossils that link ancestral species to their descendants
-ex. archaeopteryx
morphology
-study of the form of living things (the antomy or structures of an organism)
biogeography
-the study of the geographic dirturbution of plants and animals
-the distribution of organisms line up with what has been discovered about continental drift and pangea
-spiecies in nearby geographic areas may resemble each other
-possible eveidence of divergent evolution
endemic species
species that exist only in one geographic region
ex. galapagos tortises
embryology
-study of emryo development
-similarities in the embryos of vertebrates early in deveopment suggest common ancester among vertebrates
biochemistry
-study of chemical processes in living things
-analyzing dna and proteins from different species lets us compare similarities and predict common ancestry
pseudogenes
-nonfucntional genes
-don’t code for anything
-vestigal structures of your dna
-provide eviedence of divergent evolution
direct observation
microevolution that has been directly observes due to occuring in populations with short life spans that reproduce quickly
taxonomy
-field of biology that classifies organisms
-groups organisms by shared characterisitics
carolus linnaeus
-father of taxonomy
-created bionomial nomenclature
bionomial nomenclature
-2 name naming system
-genus species
what are the 3 domains of life?
-eubacteria (prokaryotes) ex. ecoli
-archaebacteria (prokaryotes in extreme envionments) ex. halophileds, thermophiles
-eukarya (eukaryotes) ex. plants, animals, fungi, protists
how are the domains broken down?
-domain
-kingdom
-phylum
-class
-order
-family
-genus
-species
phylogeny
-evolutionary history of a species
enosymbiosis
-one prokaryote ended up inside of another and both organisms thrived
-(how eukaaryotes came to be)
phylogenic trees
- a diagram used to predict evolutinoary relationships among groups of organims
what can we learn for a phylogenetic tree?
-which groups are most closely related
-which grouos are least cloesly related
-which groups diverged first
ecology
the study of relationships between two organisms/ between an organism and ites environment
metabolism
-all of the chemical reactions in each cell in an organism
-provide energy for life’s key processes
-create key molecules
organims
-individual memeber of a species of population
-ex. 1 deer
population
-multiple organisms of the same species living togther
-ex. all of the deer in a field
community
-multiple populations of different species living together
-ex. all of the deer squirrels, birds, and plants in a field
ecosystem
-community plus all abiotic factors in the environment
-ex. all deer, squirrels, birds, plants, and rain in a field
biome
-multiple ecosytstmes that share similar characterisitics
-located on different parts of the planet
-ex. grassland
biosphere
-the zone of life on earth
-encompasses all of earth’s ecosystems
biodiverstiry
-the variety of organisms considered at all levels
-from populations to ecosystem
cladogram
-diagram that shows relatedness
-does not show ancestral relationship like phylogenic tree
dichotomous key
-tool used for identifying organisms based on their charcteristics
what are the seven characterisitcs of life?
-be composed of one or ore cells
-contain dna or rna (genetic material)
-be able to grow
-be able to reproduce
-be able to respond to stimuli
-be able to adapt as a population
-have a metabloism
biotic
living
abiotic
nonliving
what is an example of a stimulus and response?
sunflowers growing facing east (response) to face the sunrise (stimuli)
what are the six levels of ecological succession?
-organism
-population
-community
-ecosystem
-biome
-biosphere
biogeochemical cycles
represent the movement of a particular form of matter through the lving and nonliving parts of an ecosystem
aquifer
an underground layer of permeable rock that can hold water
eutrophication
-when a body of water becomes overly enriches with nutrients
-causes escessive algea growth
what are the stages of the water cycle?
-precipitation
-infiltration
-runoff
-evaporation
-transpiration
-condensation
what are the stages of the carbon cycle?
-photosynthesis
-cellular respiration
-consumption
-decompostion
-combustion
-fossilization
what are the stages of the nitrogen cycle?
-nitrogen fixation (when nitrgoen is converted into a form plants can use)
-consumption
-decomposition
-ammonification (bacteria convert nitrogen from waste into ammonia)
-nitrification (convert nitrogen in ammonia to nitrates to be absorbed by plants)
-denitrification (bacteria converts nitrogen to the atmospheric form)
what are some human impacts on the water cycle?
-deforestation decreases transpiration
-building/paving increases runoff and decreases inflitration
-pollution
-eutrophicatoin
what are some living organisms’ impact of the water cycle?
-take in water
-eliminate water
-cell respiration
-photosynthesis
what are some ways humans impact the carbon cycle?
-combustion causes a major increase of co2 in the atmosphere
what are some ways living organisms impact the carbon cycle?
-decomposters break down materials and return carbon to the soil
-photosythnethis removes carbon from the air
-cell respiration
what are soem human impacts on the nitrogen cycle?
-fertilizers add way too much nitrogen to the soil causing an imbalanc
-combustion
what are some impacts of living organisms on the nitrogen cycle?
-bacteria does almost everything in the nitrogen cycle
what is the driving force behind the water cycle?
he sun
what is the organims most essential to the nitrogen cycle?
bacteria
what is the only step in the water cycle that involves a living organims?
transpiratoin
what are three places you can find carbon?
macromolcules, fossil fuels, and the atomosphere
population density
measures the number of indvidual organisms lving in a defined space
suvivorship curve
a graphic represenattion of mortaility rates (shows the number of indivuals in a population that can be expected ot survive any specific age)
exponential growth
population grows without limit (ex. humans)
logistic growth
population gorws quickly at first and then levels off (ex. most natural populations -rabbits)
carrying capacity
the theoretical maxiumum population that a given environment can support
limiting factors
aspects of the enironment that limit the size a population cna reach
density dependent
have a bigger impact on more dnese populations (ex. predatoin, competiton, desease)
density indeoendent
regulate populationgrowth regardless of size or density (ex.natural disasters, weather changes, pollution)
what two things increase population density?
birth and immigartaion
what two things decrease population density?
death adn emigration
what are the three types of dispersion types?
random, uniform, and clumped
type 1 suvivorship curve
late loss, less offspring, heavy parental care, ex. humans
type 2 suvivorship curve
constant loss, mortality unaffected by age, less parental care (ex. birds)
type 2 suvivorhsip curve
early loss, prodcue lots of offsprign, many die right away (ex. mosquitos)
sustainablity
a balance between earth’s resouces, human needs, and the needs of other species
ecologial footprint
the amount of carbon emitted and its environmental imoact
renewable resource
resources that are produced or replenished more quickly than they are consumes (ex. oxygen, wood, water, sunlight, wind)
nonrenewable resource
resources that are consumed/ used more quicley than they are produced (ex. fossil fuels, metal, plastic)
agricultural techonolgy goal
increase food productivity
alternativde energy techonlogy goal
provide “clean” energy to power society without negatively influencing the atmospehre
what are some examples of clean energy?
sunlight, water, wind, muclear
what is the gaol of industrial technology
increase maufaturing effeciency, transportation,a dn communication
what are cfc’s?
-chloroflurocarbons
-dlepte the ozone layer
greenhouse effect
the normal warmign when gases trap heat in the atmosperhere
what are some exaples of greenhosue gases?
co2, o2, ch4, h20
ecological succession
the proccess of ecological change in an ecosystem where one community is replaced by another over t me
primary succession
formation of a brand ndw ecoystem (ex. volcanic explosion, glacier melt, eroded sand)
secondary succession
recovery of an odl ecosystem (ex. fire, farming, hurricane)
pioneer species
the first organisms to grow in a new enivronment
climax community
a mature and stable community of plants and naimals (reacheed towards the end of succession)
stable ecosystem
an ecosystem that remeains relatively constant with predictable changes
what is the main difference between primary succession and secondary succession
in primary sucession soil has to be formed but it is already there in secondary successon
what are some pioneer species in primary succession?
lichena nd moss
what are some pioneer species in secondary succession?
weeds and grasses
habitat
the actual area in the ecosystme where an organism lives, including all of its abiotic and biotic resources
niche
all of the things an organism needs and does within its habitat
predator
organism hunting/killing another for food
prey
organism killed/consumed as food
keystone species
a species that holds the ecosystem together, it is critcal for the survival of the other species in the eocsystem
competitive exclusion principle
no 2 organims scan occupy the same niche at the same time
symbiosis
any interaction that involves a close, physica, long term relationship between 2 different specie (1 species always beneifts, always interspecific)
interspecific
between two different species
intraspecfic
in the same species
why is competiton not consiered a symbiotic relationship?
because competition is short term
what are thre three types of symbiotic realtionshps?
-commensalism
-parasitism
-mutualism
give an example and symbol for parasitism
+/-, a tick on a dog
give an example and symbol for commensalims
+/o, barnacles on muscles
give an example and symbol for mutualism
+/+, clownfisha nd anenome
