Biology 3 Flashcards
1
Q
How do unicellular protozoans and primitive algae move
A
by beating cilia or flagella
2
Q
what is the strucutre of cilia of flagella
A
a cylindrical stalk of 11 microtubules
9 paired microtubules arranged in a circle
2 single microtubules in the center
3
Q
how are muscles of flatworms (planaria) arranged
A
in two antagonistic layers
4
Q
what are the two layers of muscles in flatworms
A
longitudinal and circular
5
Q
What is the hydrostatic skeleton of flatworms and annelids
A
an incompressible fluid that gives the flatworm and annelids it’s shape
6
Q
how do flatworms move
A
- when they contract their circular muscles the incompressible fluid moves longitudinally lengthening the worm
- the longitudinal muscles contract causing the worm to shorten
7
Q
How do annelids move
A
then can compress of expand each section independently, and they have setae which anchor them to the ground
8
Q
what are setae
A
bristles on the underside of annelids that allow them to anchor to the ground while their muscles push against it
9
Q
What is an exoskeleton
A
a hard skeleton that covers all muscles and organs
10
Q
what is an arthropod
A
insect
11
Q
what are insect exoskeletons composed of
A
chitin
12
Q
what are all exoskeletons composed of
A
noncellular material secreted by the epidermis
13
Q
What is a problem with exoskeletons
A
they restrict growth, so periodic molting and deposition of new skeletons are necessary
14
Q
What is an endoskeleton
A
The normal interior skeleton
15
Q
what are trabeculae
A
the interconnecting lattice of bony spicules in spongy bone
16
Q
What is endochondral ossification
A
when cartilage is replaced by bone (long bone)
17
Q
what is intramembranous ossification
A
when mesenchymal (undifferentiated embryonic) connective tissue is turned into bone
18
Q
what is the latent period of a muscle twitch
A
the time between stimulation and the onset of contraction
19
Q
what is another name for the relaxation period of a muscle twitch
A
absolute refractory period (when it is unresponsive to stimulation)
20
Q
What is tonus of muscle
A
the constant partial contraction of muscle, they are never fully relaxed
21
Q
What is an analog of creatine phosphate in some organism
A
arginine phosphate
22
Q
what is digestion
A
the breakdown of large food molecules into small ones that can be absorbed into the blood stream
23
Q
how is food captured in unicellular organisms
A
by phagocytosis
24
Q
how is phagocytosis done to food in unicellular enzymes
A
- the cell surrounds the food and pulls it into a vacuole
- Lysosomes fuse with the vacuole and release enzymes to break down the food
- small molecules diffuse into the cytoplasm
- large molecules are eliminated from the vacuole
25
How is digestion done in paramecium
1. cilia sweep food into the oral groove and down into the cytopharanx
2. a vacuole forms around the food at the end of the cytopharanx
3. vavuoles move to the anterior portion where enzymes break down the food
4, small molecules diffuse into the cytoplasm
5. large molecules are expelled through the anal pore
26
What does the physical breakdown of food do
it breaks down food into smaller particles increasing surface area
it doesn't affect the molecular composition
27
how is physical breakdown done
cutting and mashing food in the mouth and churning of the digestive tract
28
chemical breakdown does what
breaks food down into smaller absorbable things
29
How is digestion done in cnidarians
1. tentacles bring food to the mouth
2. particles go from the mouth to a sac
3, the endodermal cells lining this cavity secrete enzymes to break down food.
4. small fragments are engulfed by gastrodermal cells and digestion is completed intracellulary
5. un absorbed food is expelled through the mouth
30
How is digestion done in annelids
1. it is eaten at the mouth
2. passes through the pharynx and esophagus
3. enters the crop (food storage)
4. from the crop to the gizzard (food grinder)
5. into the large intestine
6. excreted by the anus
31
what is unique about the large intestine of the annelid
it has a large dorsal fold to increase surface area
32
what is the large dorsal fold of annelid digestive system called
the thypholosole
33
What is the arthropod digestive system like
they are just like annelids except they have jaws for chewing and glands to help with digestion
34
where is nutrient absorption done in a annelids and arthropods
the large intestine
35
What is the order of food passing in humans
1. oral cavity
2. pharynx
3. esophagus
4. stomach
5. small int.
6. large int.
7. anus
36
What are the acessory organs to the digestive system
salivary glands
pancreas
liver
gall bladder
37
What happens in the oral cavity
mechanical breakdown by mastication
| chemical breakdown by saliva
38
what are the functions of saliva
1. lubricate the food for easier swallowing
| 2. breakdown starch to maltose
39
what is the enzyme released by saliva in the mouth
salivary amylase (ptyalin)
40
What are the rhythmic waves of involuntary smooth muscle contraction of the esophagus called
peristalsis
41
Where are the stomach glands found
in the gastric mucosa
42
what is the pH of the stomach
2
43
what does pepsin do
it hydrolizes proteins
44
what does HCL do in the stomach
1. kills bacteria
2. dissolves the intercellular "glue" holding food tissues together
3. activates certain enzymes (pepsin)
45
What is chyme
an acidic semifluid mixture of partially digested food
46
what is the first section of the small int.
duodenum
47
What are the two sphincters of the stomach
gastric and pyloric
48
What are the three sections of the small int
duodenum, jejunum and the ileum
49
what is found in vili of the small int
capillaries and lacteals
50
what are lacteals
small vessels of the lymphatic system
51
What goes into capillaries and into lacteals in the small int
amino acids and monosaccharides go into the capillaries
| large fatty acids and glycerol go into the lacteals
52
what happens to fatty acids and glycerol in the lacteals
they are reconverted into fats
53
what two things must be actively absorbed
glucose and amino acids
54
Where does most digestion occur
the duodenum
55
what are lipases for
fat digestion
56
what are aminopeptidases for
polypeptide digestion
57
what are disaccharidases for
digestion of disaccharides
58
What does the liver do for digestion
produces bile
59
what stores bile
gall bladder
60
what does bile do
emulsifies fat (breaks it down into small globs) which increases surface area for lipase
61
what does the pancreas do for digestion
secretes amylase, trypsin, and lipase
| secretes a bicarbonate juice to neutralize acidity
62
what does the large intestine do for digestions
it absorbs salt and water
63
what does the rectum do
stores feces prior to elimination through the anus
64
do plants have a digestive system
nope
65
how do things like fungi get food
they secrete enzymes into whatever they are growing on, then the smaller molecules are absorbed and used for energy or syntehsized to larger molecules
66
What is rhizoids
they are a thing in bread mold
| saprophyte
67
What does the venus flytrap use the insect it eats as
a nitrate source because they grow in nitrogen poor soils
68
what is excretion
the removal of metabolic wastes produced by the body
69
what is elimination
the removal of indigestible material
70
where does excretion occur
the kidneys
71
how do protozoans and cnidarians excrete
the metabolic byproducts simply diffuse out of the cell since they are all external
72
What do freshwater protozoans and cnidarians have for excretion
contractile vacuoles needed for active transport to pump against osmotic pressure
73
how does CO2 excretion occur in annelids
it diffuses directly through the skin
74
how do annelids excrete water, mineral salts, and nitrogenous wastes
in the form of urea by nephridia
75
how many nephridia do annelids have per body segement
2
76
How is carbon dioxide excreted by arthropods
it diffuses from the cells to the tracheae, then through those out the spiracles
77
How are nitrogenous wastes excreted by arthropods
in the form of solid uric acid crystals with the solid wastes of digestion
78
why do insects excrete nitrogenous wastes in the form of solid uric crystals
to conserve water.
79
where do the salts and uric acid accumulate for excretion in arthropods
malphigian tubules
80
what are the principal organs of excretion of the human body
lungs
liver
skin
kidneys
81
what do the lungs excrete
CO2 and water vapor
82
what does the skin excrete
water and salts
83
what does the liver do for excretion
processes nitrogenous waste, blood pigment waste, and other chemicals
Produces Urea
84
What do the kidneys do
they regulate the concentration of salt and water in the blood by formation and excretion of urine
85
what makes up the kidneys
nephrons
86
What are the three regions of the kidney
outer cortex, inner medulla, and the renal pelvis
87
What is the path that blood takes in the kidney
```
afferent arteriole
bowmans capsule
glomerulus
proximal convoluted tubule
loop of henle
distal convuloted tubule
collecting duct
renal pelvis
ureter
urinary bladder
urethra
```
88
Where are the structures of the nephron located
bowmans capsule, glomerulus, both convuloted tubules are in the cortex.
loop of henle is in the medulla
89
what surrounds the nephron
the peritubular capillary
90
what is the purpose of the periubular capillary
facilitate reasbsorption of amino acids, glucose, salts and water
91
What are the three processes of urine formation
filtration
secretion
reabsorption
92
What is filtration
the process of blood plasma flowing through the glomerulus, and bowmans capsule, then into the nephron
93
What percent of blood plasma is pushed through the glomerulus and by what
blood pressure pushes 20% of blood plasma through into the nephron
94
What is the fluid called that enters the nephron through the glomerulus
filtrate
95
What stays in the blood when it is filtrated
large particles like blood cells and albumin
96
What is secretion in the kidney
when the nephron pulls potentially harmful stuff into the filtrate from the peritubular capillaries for excretion
97
What kinds of transport do secretion
both active and passive
98
What is reabsorption
when essential substances are pulled back into the peritubular capillaries from the filtrate
99
What things are reabsorbed
glucose, salts, amino acids, water
100
Is reabsorption active or passive transport
active
101
where does reabsorption primarily occur
the proximal convuloted tubule
102
what does reabsorption do for the concentration of urine
when it pulls substances back into the capillaries it also pulls water, this means that urine will be more concentrated, or hypertonic to the blood
103
how does tissue osmolarity of the kidney change
it increases from the cortex to the medulla
104
What are the solutes that contribute to the maintenance of the kidney gradient
urea and salt
105
what establishes the osmolarity of urine
the countercurrent multiplier system
106
What concentrates urine
the hyperosmolarity of the medulla pulls water out of the collecting tubules on it's way to the renal pelvis
107
What hormone regulates the permeability of the collecting tubule
ADH or vasopressin (increases permiability)
108
How does excess water leave plants
transpiration through leaf stomates
109
what do plants do with their metabolic wastes
they reuse many of them
110
What are reflexes
automatic responses to simple stimuli that are reliable behavioral responses to a given stimuli
111
what is a simple reflex
sensory neuron sends a signal to the spinal cord, there it connects to an interneuron and then to the motor neuron
112
What is different about a complex reflex as opposed to a simple reflex
they involve neural integration at a higher level
| brainstem or cerebrum
113
what is an example of a complex reflex
startle response
114
what does the reticular activating system do
in charge of sleep/wake cycles
behavoiral motivation
complex reflexs
115
what are fixed action patterns
complex, coordinated, innate behavioral responses to stimulation in the environment
116
What is the stimulus that starts fixed action patterns called
the releaser
117
are fixed action patterns ususally modified through learning
nope
118
what are examples of fixed-action patterns
swimming actions of a fish
119
What are behavior cycles also called
circadian rythyms
120
what happens to behavoir cycles if you are taken away from the light/dark environment
they lose some precision
121
What is internal and external control of behavior cycles
```
internal = body rhythms of hunger/satiation
external = dinner bells, clocks
```
122
What are environmental rhythms
things like stop lights, environmental factors that creates repeated behavoir
123
What determines how much learning a species can do
the degree of neurological development
124
What is habituation
a form of learning in which repeated stimulation results in decreased responsiveness to that stimulation
125
What is it called when after habituation with a stimulus, the stimulus is stopped and the reaction occurs again
spontaneous recovery
126
What is classical conditioning
Pavlovs dogs, you make an unassociated stimulus replace a biological stimulus by associated the two stimuli
127
what is the innate stimul called
unconditioned stimulus
128
what is the innate reflex to the innate simuli called
unconditioned response
129
What is the unassociated response called
neutral stimulus
130
What is pseudo conditioning
when you accidentally pick a neutral stimulus that does the same thing as the real stimulus
131
What is operant or instrumental conditioning
when you conditioning with a reward or reinforcement
132
What did skinners box show
operant conditioning
133
what is positive reinforcement
when you reward the animal for doing something you wanted
134
how effective is positive reinforcement
very effective, it can be involved in normal habit forming
135
What is negative reinforcement
? either removal of an unwanted stimulus
| or rewarding something for not doing something
136
is negative reinforcement effective
pretty effective, not as effective as positive
137
how good is punishment at conditioning
pretty good, not as good as positive reinforcement
138
What is habit family hierarchy
when one stimulus has a few different responses
reward for one response increases it's occurence
punishment for one response decreases it's occurence
139
what is extinction in conditioning
when a conditioned response is lost in the absence of reinforcement
140
how does extinction happen in instrumental or operant conditioning
the conditioned response will gradually decrease as the stimulus is stopped and will eventually go away. but it will come back quickly when the stimuli is brought back
141
how does extinction happen in classical conditioning
the conditioned response will gradually decrease if you don't pair up the conditioned stimuli and the unconditioned stimulus occasionally. it can be relearned after extinction
142
what is it called when a conditioned response comes back after extinction
spontaneous recovery
143
What is stimulus generalization
the ability of a conditioned organism to respond to a stimulus that is different but similar to the conditioned stimulus.
144
What happens to varying stimuli in stimulus generalization
the further from the initial stimulus, the weaker the reaction
145
what is stimulus discrimination
organisms can learn to differentiate between very similar stimuli. they will respond to the good, and do nothing for the unconditioned
146
What is imprinting
when a stimulus during the "critical period" becomes accepted permanently as an element of it's behavoiral environment
147
what is an example of imprinting
baby ducks thinking that the first large thing they see is their mother
148
Who id Konrad Lorenz
the mother of the ducks
149
What is the critical period
a time in the early development when the organism is able to develop behavioral patterns
150
what is the visual critical period
a period during which if the organism doesn't get light, it's visual effectors wont't develop correctly
151
What are behavioral displays
innate communication behavior amongst a species
152
What are categories of behavioral displays
reproductive displays
agonistic displays
antagonistic displays
dancing displays
153
what is territoriality
when males space themselves out to maintain resources and competition
154
What are pheromones
chemical scents released by an organism that affects the behavoir of other organisms
155
What are releaser pheromones
pheromones that trigger a reversable behavoiral change
156
what are examples of releaser pheromones
sex-attractant pheromones
| alarm and toxic defensive pheromones
157
What are primer pheromones
pheromones that produce long-term behavoiral alterations.
158
What is ecology
the study of the interactions between organisms and their environment
159
what are the two components of an environment
```
the physical non-living (abiotic)
the living (biotic)
```
160
what composes the physical environment
```
climate
temperature
light
water
topology
```
161
What is the individual unit of an ecological system
the organism
162
What is a species
any group of similar organisms capable of reproducing fertile offspring
163
what is a population
a group of organisms in the same species, living together in a given location
164
What are communities
populations of different plants and animal species interacting with each other in a given environment
165
what is a biotic community
only includes the populations and their physical environment
166
what is an ecosystem
the community and the environment
167
How many of the 5 kingdoms do communities normally have
all 5 depending on each other
168
What is a biosphere
everything about the planet that supports life
169
What are the parts of the biosphere
```
the atmospere
the lithosphere (rock and soil surface)
the hydrosphere (sea and oceans)
```
170
what is the ultimate source of energy for all organisms
sunlight
171
What is the photic zone
the top layer of water into which sunlight can penetrate and photosynthetic activity can happen
172
What is the aphotic zone
the bottom layer of water where no light can get to
173
Which is worse for temperature changes moveing away from the equator or increasing altitude
they actually cause similar ecosystem changes
174
What is the substratum
the soil or rock
175
What affects the substratum
acidity
texture (affects water holding capacity)
Minerals, (nitrates, phosphates)
humus
176
What plants do well in acidic soil
rhododendrons and pines
177
what does acid rain do to the substratum
increases the acidity making it hard for certain organisms to grow
178
What are loams (soil)
it is soil that contains high percentages of each kind of soil
179
what determines humus quantity in the soil
the amount of decaying plants and animal life in the soil
180
What is the niche
the functional role of an organism in it's ecosystem
181
what is the habitat
the physical place where the organism lives
182
What does a niche include
every aspect of an organisms existence
183
What are the outcomes when species compete for resources
1. dominant species will drive the other to extiction
2. dominance in certain regions could differ, this would cause separation to those areas
3. the two species could evolve in divergent directions, changing their niche, not their location
184
What are the three kinds of heterotrophs
herbivores
carnivores
omnivores
185
What are some unique physiological aspects of herbivore
1. long digestive tracts = more surface area and time for digestion
2. symbiotic bacteria in the digestive tract
3. hooves for faster movement on grasslands
4. cutting insicors, grinding molars
186
What causes the physiological differences in herbivores
they only eat plants, and the tough cellulose-containing plant tissues are hard to digest
187
What are some behavioral differences in herbivore
they are more adept in defense because they are often prey
188
What are some physiological differences in carnivores
1. pointed teeth and fanglike canines for tearing flesh
| 2. shorter digestive tracts
189
What are omnivores
things that eat both plants and animals
190
What are the types of interpsecific interactions
symbiosis
predation
saprophytsm
scavenging
191
What is symbiosis
symboints live together in an intimate, often permanent association which may or may not be beneficial to both participants.
192
What is an obligatory symboitic relationship
one or both organisms can't survive without the other
193
What are the types of symbioitic relationships
commensalism
mutualism
parasitism
194
what is commensalism
one organism is benefitted, the other is unaffected
195
What are two examples of commensalism
remora and shark - remora attaches to the shark, eats it's leftovers, travels, and gets protection
barnacle and whale - barnacle attaches to the whale and gets more feeding opportunities due to the travel of the whale
196
What is mutualism
a symbiotic relationship where both organims get some benefit
197
What are examples of mutualism
```
tick bird and rhino
fungi and algae
nitrogen fixing bacteria and legumes
protozoa and termites
intestinal bacteria and humans
```
198
What is parasitism
the parasite benefits at the expense of the host
199
When does parasitism usually occur
when competition for food is most intense
200
what are the two types of parasitism
ectoparasites (cling to the outside of the organism)
| endoparasites (reside inside the organism)
201
do very successful parasites kill their hosts
no, that would lead to it's own death
202
What are examples of parasites
```
leeches ticks
virus and host cell
disease bacteria and animals
disease fungi and animals
ringworm and humans
worms and animals
```
203
What is predation
when one species eats other species.
204
what usually happens with predation
predators regulate the growth of the population of the prey, but doesn't cause them to be extinct
205
What is saprophytism
when protists and fungi decompose dead organic matter externally and absorb the nutrients
206
What are scavengers
animals that consume dead animals
207
What animal could be both a scavenger and a predator
the snapping turtle
208
What are intraspecific interactions
interactions between organisms of the same species
209
what is intraspecific competition
when organisms of a species compete for the same resources, those resources get more scarce and the organisms must compete
210
what are examples of intraspecific cooperation
reproduction
protection from predators
protection from destructive weather
211
What is osmoregulation
the ability of animals to adapt to their specific water supplies
212
What is the osmoregulation of saltwater fish like
they live in a hyperosmotic environment.
they are constantly losing water
they must constantly drink, never urinate, and excrete salt through their gills
213
What is the osmoregulation of freshwater fish like
they live in a hypoosmotic environment
they are constantly taking in water and losing salt
They seldom drink, absorb salt through the gills, and excrete diluted urine
214
What is the osmoregulation of insects like
they escrete solid uric acid crystals to conserve water
215
What is the osmoregularion of a camel like
they can tolerate wide ranges of temperatures and posses fat layers that are exposed to solar radiation
216
What is the osmoregulation of the horned toad like
they have thick scaly skin that prevents water loss
217
Why do some animals burrow during the day in the desert
to look for food and avoid the heat of the day that causes water loss
218
What do non desert plants do for osmoregulation
they posses waxy cuticles on leaf surfaces, and stomata on the lower leaves.
they shed leaves in winter to prevent water loss
219
what do desert plants do for osmoregulation
they have extensive root systems, fleshy stems to store water, spiny leaves to limit water loss, extra thick cuticles, and few stomata
220
roughly what percent of energy from ATP is heat
60 %
221
What is the body temperature of poikilothermic organisms like
the temperature of their environement, becuase they give off most of the heat they produce
222
What happens to poikilotherms metabolism with external temperature changes
the metabolic rate changes drastically with temperature changes
hotter = more active cold blooders
cold = less active cold blooders
223
What are homeothermic animals
warm blooded animals
224
What keeps homeothermic animals warm
fat, hair, feathers.
225
What is the body temperature of hometherms like
it is higher than the external temperature
226
What is an advantage of being homeothermic
you can live in many different regions because you aren't affected by temperature as much
227
how is energy flow in the ecosystem done
by the food chain, or food web
228
what is the food chain
a single chain showing the transfer of energy
229
What are the participants in the food chain
1. producers
2. primary consumers
3. secondary consumers
4. tertiary consumers
5. decomposers
230
what are producers in the food chain
autotrophic green plants and chemosynthetic bacteria, because they use solar energy to manufactor carbs, lipids, and proteins.
231
What are primary consumers in the food chain
herbivores, anything that eats the green plants
232
what are secondary consumers in the food chain
animals that consume primary consumers
233
what are tertiary consumers in the food chain
animals that consume secondary consumers
234
What are decomposers
the bacteria and fungi that decompose the organic wastes and dead tissues to simpler compounds.
235
What is the food web
it is basically an expanded food chain, it shows all of the different food connections.
236
what does the number of pathways in a food web indicate
the more pathways in a food web, the more stable the system.
237
What are food pyramids
they show that with each step up the food chain, energy, total mass, and number of organisms decrease
238
What is the energy pyramid
because each level uses some energy to get the energy from the earlier with each step up the chain there is less available energy
producers have total energy that primary consumers and so on
239
what is the mass pyramid
because energy is the most at the bottom (producers) and the least at the top (tertiary consumers) the total mass of the producers is more than each level after it
240
what is the numbers pyramid
with each step up the food chain you get less and less organisms
241
What happens in material cycles
the materials usually change from inorganic to organic and back to inorganic forms
242
what is the first step of the nitrogen cycle
elemental nitrogen is inert, so lightening and nitrogen-fixing bacteria change the nitrogen to usable soluble nitrates
243
What are the steps of the nitrogen cycle
1. nitrogen is activated
2. nitrogen is taken up in plants and synthesize nucleic acids and plant proteins
3. animals eat the plants and syntesize animal proteins
4. both plants and animals die
5. proteins and nitrogens locked up in waste and dead organisms is turned to ammonia by decaying things
6. ammonia can be turned back to useless nitrogen and some is broken down to release free usable nitrogen
244
What are the four bacteria in the nitrogen cycle
1. decay
2. nitrifying
3. denitrifying
4. nitrogen fixing
245
What do nitrifyin bacteria do
turn ammonia into useless nitrogen
246
what do denitrifying bacteria do
turn ammonia into useable nitrogen
247
what do nitrogen fixing bacteria do
turn inert nitrogen into useful nitrogen
248
What are the steps of the carbon cycle
1. gasseous CO2 enters the living world through plants and photosynthesis
2. animals eat plants and the animals release CO2 through respiration
3. some carbon is left in dead things, but then decaying produces CO2 and puts it back into the air
249
what are the three requirements for a self-sustaining ecosystem
1. a stable physical environment + stable biotic community
2. a constant energy source and producers
3. cycling of materials between living system and it's environment
250
What is ecological sucession
the orderly process by which one biotic community replaces or succeeds another until a climax community is established
251
In ecological succession what is each community stage called
a sere
252
How is each sere in ecological succession indetified
by a dominant species
253
What causes community changes in ecological succession
each new community changes the environment, making it more unfavorable for itself and more favorable for the community that succeeds it.
254
At what point in ecological succession do we reach the climax community
when the succeeding community alters the environment in such a way that the original conditions that brought that community in are recreated.
255
what happens once we have our climax community
replacement stops
256
What determines what the climax community will be
abiotic factors
- rainfall
- soil conditions
- temperature
- shade
257
What causes the climax community to fail
a major change in the climate (abiotic things)
| or a major change in the biotic (disease, mutations)
258
where is the evolutionary origin of plants
the seas
259
what things did plants have to overcome to move to land from the seas
1. relative lack of water
2. relative lack of food
3. varying temperatures
4. varying composition of the soil
260
What is a biome
distinct geographical regions inhabited by a distinct community
261
What are land biomes characterized by and named after
the climax vegetation of the region
262
What determines the climax animal population
the climax vegetation of the region
263
What defines a desert biome
1. recieves < 10" rain per year
2. growing season only after rainfall
3. small plants and animals
4. few birds and mammals
5. Examples (sahara and gobi)
264
What defines a grassland biome
1. low rainfall (10" - 30") per year
2. no shelter for herbivorus mammals
3. animals have long legs many are hoofed
4. Examples (praries east of the rockies, steppes of ukraine, pamapas of argentina)
265
what defines a tropical rainforest biome
1. Jungles classified by high temperatures and torrential rains
2. Climax vegetation is dense vegetation that doesn't shed leaves
3. trees grow close together
4. the floor has saprophtyes (living off dead stuff)
5. Examples (central africa, central america, amazon basin, southeast asia
266
What defines a deciduous forest biome
1. cold winters, warm summers, moderate rainfall
2. beech, maple, oaks, willows shed thier leaves during the winter
3. animals include deer, fox, woodchuck, squirrel
4. examples (northeast, cenrtal east USA, central europe)
267
What defines a temperate coniferous forest biome
1. cold, dry and inhabited by fir, pine and spruce trees
2. most plants have evolved for water conservation (needles)
3. examples (extreme northern USA and canada)
268
What defines a Taiga biome
1. less rainfall than temperate forests
2. long cold winters
3. only inhabited by the spruce
4. cheif animal is the moose (black bear, wolf, and birds)
5. examples extreme north of canada and russia
269
What defines a tundra biome
1. Treeless, frozen plain
2. very short summer and very short growing season
3. polar bears, musk oxen, artic hens
270
What defines the polar region
1. frozen area with no vegetation
2. few animals
3. animals that do live here live near the polar oceans
271
What happens to your biome change as you go up a tall mountain
you would pass through biomes just like you do as you leave the equator.
```
base of the mountain = temperate deciduous biome
coniferous like biome
taiga like biome
tundra like biome
polar like biome at the mountain peak
```
272
What determines biomes
temperature and rainfall
273
how much of the earths food and oxygen production takes place in the water
90%
274
What are the two major aquatic biomes
marina and freshwater
275
Why are aquatic biomes so stable
because the oceans are much less likely to change in any way
276
What are the three zones of the marine biome
intertidal zone
littoral zone
pelagic zone
277
What is characteristic of the intertidal zone
1. region exposed during low tide
2. variations in temperature and dryness
3. algae, sponges, clams, snails, sea urchins, starfish, crabs
278
What is characteristic of the littoral zone
1. region on the continental shelf that goes up to 600 feet deep
2. algae, crabs, crustacea, fish
279
What are the characteristics of the pelagic zone
1. the open seas (anything after the continental shelf
| 2. Divided into the Photic and Aphotic zones
280
What are the characteristics of the Photic zone
1. The sunlight layer of the ocean
2. 250 - 600 feet deep
3. contains plankton, microscopic photosynthetic and heterotropic organims, nekton
281
What is nekton
active swimmers like fish, sharks, whales that feed on smaller fish or plankton
282
What is the chief autotroph in the photic zone
the diatom, an algae
283
What are the characteristics of the Aphotic zone
1. Region of the ocean that receives no sunlight
2. only heterotrophs here
3. Deep sea organisms with adaptations to survive the cold, dark, high-pressure environment
4. nekton and benthos live here
5. fiercely competitive habitat
284
what are Benthos
organisms that live on or near the sea bed
285
what happened to ancient organisms that tried to adapt to land but couldn't
well they tried to do so in rivers, so instead of adapting to land, they adapted to freshwater. (some even adapted to be able to live in both)
286
What factors affect life in water
```
temperature
transparency
depth of water
available CO2 and O2
Salt concentration
```
287
How do freshwater biomes differ from marine biomes
1. Freshwater is hypotonic, so water moves into the cells. so freshwater organisms must remove their excess water
2. Swift currents exist, favoring strong muscles fish and plants with root like holdfasts
3. Freshwater biomes are very affected by climate and weather
288
What is taxonomy
the classification and nomenclature used for organisms
289
How is modern taxonomy grouping up organisms
by their evolutionary relationships
290
What is the classification system from most broad to most specific
```
Kingdom
Phyla (divisions)
Subphyla (subdivisions)
Classes
Orders
Families
Genera
Species
```
291
What is my thingy for remembering classification systems
```
King
Phil
Said
Classes
On
Family
Get
Spiritual
```
292
When is Phyla and Subphyla used
only in the animal kingdom
293
How are specific names assigned to organisms
you simply put their genus and species together
| Homo - Sapiens
294
What is the specific name for the house cat
felis domestica
295
Who started the assignment of specific names for organisms
Carl Linn
296
What are the Five kingdoms
```
Monera
Protista
Fungi
Plantae
Animalia
```
297
How many kingdoms are there
5
298
What is the thingy to remember the 5 Kingdoms
```
Many
People
Find
People
Annoying
```
299
Why aren't viruses put into any of the kingdoms
1. because they do not carry out any activities outside of a host
2. they can be considered non-living
300
What are viruses that infect bacteria called
bacteriophages
301
What are characteristics of the monera kingdom
1. They are prokaryotes (bacteria)
2. They lack a nucleus or membrane bound organelles
3. single celled organisms
4. asexual reproduction
302
What are the characteristics of the protista kindgom
1. Primitive eukaryotic organisms
2. plant like and animal like characteristics
3. no differentiation of tissues
4. each cell can carry out all of the life processes
5. any eukaryote not classified as plants or animals
303
What are the characteristics of the fungi kingdom
1. non-photosynthetic plants
2. saprophytic or parasitic
3. varied and unique modes of reproduction
4. cell walls of chitin, not cellulose
304
How are fungi similar to plants
1. Multicellular
2. differentiated
3. nonmotile
305
how do fresh water plants deal with the hypoosmolarity of the water
they store the water in their rigid cell walls, minimizing the gradient
306
What is turgor
when a cell builds up pressure as water comes in
307
What are the characteristics of the plantae kingdom
1. multicellular organisms
2. differentiation of tissues
3. non-motile
4. photosynthetic
5. alternation of generations and a distinct embryonic phase
308
What are the characteristics of the animalia kingdom
1. Multicellular
2. generally motile
3. heterotrophic
4. differentiated tissues
5. have organs in higher forms
309
What is cyanobacteria
blue-green algae
310
where is cyanobacteria found
in freshwater, sometimes marine water
311
What are some characteristics of cyanobacteria
1. have photosynthetic pigments
2. don't have flagella, true nucleus, chloroplasts, mitochondria
3. can withstand extreme temperatures
4. believed to be direct descendants of the first photosynthetic organisms
312
What is most bacteria like
1. single celled prokaryotes
2. 1 double stranded DNA ring
3. no nuclear membrane
4. have cell walls
5. are important in biogeochemical cycles
313
how are some bacteria classified
by their morphoogical appearances
314
What are cocci
round bacteria
315
what are cabili
rod like bacteria
316
what are spirilla
spiral bacteria
317
what are diplococci
bacterial duplexes
318
what are staphylococci
bacterial clusters
319
what are streptococci
chain like bacteria
320
What are the two categories of the protista kingdom
protozoa
| algae
321
what are protozoa
single celled heterotrophic organisms
322
What are two types of protozoa
rhizopods
| ciliophors
323
What is algae
phtosynthetic single celled eukaryotes
324
What are slime molds
they are a coenocytic mass of protoplasm (many nuclei) with a unique life cycle similar to plants and animals
325
What do waxy cuticles do in plants
they minimize water loss and allow sunlight
326
What are bryophyta
simple plants with a few specialized organs and tissues
327
What is the dominant generation in bryophyta
the gametophyte
328
What are the two types of bryophyta
mosses and liverworts
329
What are liverworts
flat leaf like plants
330
What are tracheophyta
vascular plants
331
What is the dominant generation in tracheophytes
the sporophyte
332
what are the four divisions of tracheophytes
1. psilophyta
2. lycophyta
3. spenophyta
4. pterophyta
333
Which divisions of tracheophytes are almost extinct
psilophyt
lycophyta
spenophyta
334
What is an example of a pterophyta plant
fern
335
What in the coniferophyta division
conifers like cycads, pines, spruce, and fir trees
336
conifers are gymnosperms, what are gymnopserms
naked-seeded plants
337
What are the types of cones from conifers
1. Large female cones whose sporangia produce megaspores
| 2. small male cones whose sporangia produce microspores
338
What does deciduous mean
the leaves fall off
339
What is the anthophyta divison of plants
flowering plants known as angiosperms
340
What are the two subclasses of angiosperms
dicotyledons (dicots)
| monocotyledons (monocots)
341
What are dicots
- have two cotyledons (seeded leaves)
342
What are monocots
- have seeds with single cotyledons
343
What are the 6 characteristics used to define animalia
1. Differentiation of cells
2. alimentation
3. Locomotion
4. Bilateral symmetry
5. Nervous system
6. Chemical coordinating systems
344
What kinds of foods do most animals eat
holotrophic foods
345
What are sessile animals
stationary animals that trap food
346
What are the characteristics of sponges
1. two layers of cells
2. have pores
3. are sessile
4. have low cellular specialization
347
What are the characteristics of cnidarians
1. sealed digestive sac at one end
2. Two layers (ectoderm and endoderm)
3. tentacles, stinging cells, net nerves
4. Hydra, jellyfish, sea anemone, and coral
348
What are the characteristics of platyhelminthes
1. flatworms
2. three layers of cells
3. no circulatory system
4. inferior nervous system
349
What are the characteristics of nematoda
1. round worms
2. digestive tubes and anus
3. no circulatory system
4. nerve cords, and nerve ring
350
What are the characteristics of annelida
1. segmented worms
2. have a coelom
3. well defined systems
4. earthworms and leeches
351
What is a coelom
a true body cavity
352
What are the charateristics of mollucsca
1. soft bodied
2. mantles that secrete calcareous exoskeletons
3. breath by gills
4. chambered hearts
5. snails, clams, squid
353
What are the characteristics of arthropods
1. jointed appendages
2. chitin exoskeletons
3. open circulatory systems
354
What are calcareous exoskeletons
calcium carbonate
355
What are the three classes of arthropods
1. insects
2. Arachnids
3. Crustaceans
356
What are the characteristics of insects
1. Three pairs of legs
2. spiracles
3. tracheal tubes for breating
357
what are the characteristics of arachnids
1. four pairs of legs
2. book lungs
3. (spiders and scorpions)
358
what are the characteristics of crustaceans
1. segmented body
2. variable numbers of appendages
3. gills
4. lobster, crayfish, shrimp
359
What are the characteristics of echinoderms
1. spiny
2. radially symmetrical
3. water vascular system
4. regeneration of parts
5. starfish, sea urchins
360
What are the characteristics of chordates
1. have a notochord in development
2. paired gill slits
3. tail beyond the anus in development
361
What is unique about lancelets and tunicates
they are chordates, but not vertebrates
362
What are verterbrates
1. most advances chordates
2. have vertebrae
3. amphibians, reptiles, birds, fish and mammals
363
What are the characteristics of fish
1. two chambered heart
2. gills
3. use external fertilization for reproduction
364
What are the three kind of fish
1. jawless fish
2. cartilagenous fish
3. bony fish
365
What are the characteristics of jawless fish
1. eel-like
2. retain notochord
3. catrilagenous internal skeleton
4. lamprey and hagfish
366
What are the characteristics of cartilagenous fish
1. have jaws and teeth
2. reduced notochord
3. Sharks
367
What are the charateristics of bony fish
1. the most common kind of fish
2. have scales
3. lack notochord
4. bony skelton
5. tuna, sturgeon, trout
368
What are the characteristics of larval amphibia
1. larval stage found in water
| 2. has a tail, gills and no legs
369
What are the characteristics of adult amphibia
1. live on land
2. have lungs, two pairs of legs
3. 3 chambered heart
4. uses external fertilization
5. frog, salamander, toad, newt
370
What are the characteristics of reptiles
1. terrestrial animals
2. breath air by lungs
3. lay leathery eggs.
4. use internal fertilization
5. poikilothermic
6. turtle, lizard, snake crocodile
371
What are the characteristics of bird
1. four chambered heart
2. warm-blooded (homeothermic)
3. eggs in shells
4. hen and eagle
372
What are the characteristics of mammals
1. homeothermic
| 2. feed offspring with milk
373
What are the kinds of mammals
1. monetremes
2. marsupials
3. placental mammals
374
What are the charateriscics of monotremes
1. lay eggs
2. horny bills
3. milk glands with no nipples
4. duckbilled platypus and the spiny anteater
375
What are the characteristics of marsupials
1. pouched mammals
2. begins development in the uterus, finishes attached to nipples in the abdominal pouch
3. kangaroo, opossum
376
What are the characteristics of placental mammals
1. fully develop in the uterus
2. placenta
3. bats, mice, humans
377
What is evolution
the change in the genetic makeup of a population over time
378
What are the 6 main evidences of evolution
```
1, types of fossils
2, comparative anatomy
3. comparative embryology
4. comparative biochemistry
5. vestigial structures
6. geographic barriers
```
379
Where are fossils generally found
sedementary rock
380
What are the different type of fossils
1. actual remains
2. petrification
3. imprints
4. molds
5. casts
381
What is petrification
when minerals replace the cells of an organism
382
What are molds
hollow spaces in rock left from decayed organisms
383
What are casts
minerals depositing in molds
384
What are the two types of comparative anatomy
homologous structures
| analogous structures
385
What are homologous structures
structures with the same features and origins
386
What are analogous structures
structures that have similar functions but different origins
387
What are examples of homologous structures
wings of a bat
flippers of a whale
forelegs of a horse
arms of humans
388
What are examples of analogous structures
wings of a fly and wings of a bird
389
What is comparative embryology
when stages of development of a more evolved organisms resemble other organisms
390
What are examples of common embryology
human fetus' have gills like fish
fish embryo's have teeth like reptiles
human embryo's have a tail
391
What is comparative biochemistry
looking at DNA, chemical processes, enzymes and genetic similarities and differences
(many organisms have common DNA sequences, indicating common ancestors)
392
What is divergence
when two species became evolutionary different
| the longer ago the divergence, the more different they are now
393
What are vestigial structres
apparently useless strucutres that apparently had some use in ancestors
394
What are examples of vestigial structures
appendix in humans (helps in herbivore cellulose digestion)
Coccyx in humans (tail)
splints on the legs of the horse (two side toes of eohippus)
python has useless legs embedded in it's sides (whales have similar hind-limb bones)
395
how do geographic barriers prove evolution
once organisms of the same species were separated, they kept some of their traits and the advantageous ones were highlighted differently in each one.
396
What is systematics
a field that studies and constructs evolutionary relationships
397
What is a phylogeny
the evolutionary history of a group of organisms
398
What is cladistics
the classification of organisms based on their phylogenic tree
399
what is important in cladistics
parsimony
400
What is lamarckian evolution
it said that the useful developped traits of a parent were passed on to a child. (not true)
401
Why is lamarckian evolution wrong
only changes in DNA of sex cells can be inherited
402
What is darwins theory of natural selection
that the most fit of organisms survive and reproduce
403
What are some agents leading to evolutionary change according to darwin
1. Overpopulation (some offspring die)
2. Variations (not all offspring are the same)
3. Competition (many young die)
4. Natural selection (the best things live)
5. Inheritance of variations (the longer you live the more you reproduce)
6. Evolution of the new species (favorable changes are perpetuated)
404
What is the gene pool
the sum total of all the alleles for any given train in the population
405
What id gene frequency
the decimal fraction representing the presence of an allele for all members of the population that have this gene locus
406
What does p + q = 1 mean
that the frequency of the dominant allele (p) and the frequency of the recessive allele (q) when added must equal 1 (100%)
407
What are the 5 conditions that have to be met for a population to be in Hardy-Weinburg equilibrium
1. Population is large
2. No mutations
3. Random mating
4. no net migration in or out of the pool
5. genes in the pool can all equally reproduce
408
What is the hardy weinburg equation
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
409
what does p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1 mean
```
p^2 = number of homozygous dominants
2pq = number of heterozygous
q^2 = number of homozygous recessive
```
410
What is microevolution
The deviations from hardy weinburg equilibrium that happen in real life
411
What are the factors in microevolution
1. natural selection
2. mutation
3. assortive mating
4. genetic drift
5. gene flow
412
What is assortive mating
some traits lead to more mating, so they will be passed on
413
What is genetic drift
changes in composition of the gene pool due to chance
414
What is gene flow
migration in or out of a population will cause a change in composition of a popluations gene flow
415
What is speciation
the evolution of a new species that can reproduce with itself and no other species
416
What are demes
small populations of interbreeding organims that begin to resemble eachother more than other organisms of the same species
417
What leads to the creation of a new species
```
genetic variation
environment changes
migration
adaptation
natural selection
isolation
```
418
at what point can one say that a new species has been created
when two individuals of the same species can't mate to form a viable offspring
419
what is adaptive radiation
the emergence of a number of species from a single ancestral species.
420
how does adaptive radiation occur
organisms diverge into specific niches
421
What are the three evolutionary patterns
1. divergent evolution
2. convergent evolution
3. parallel evolution
422
how does isolation cause evolution
when two populations of the same species are isolated, change in them become permanent and different from the other because there is no gene flow between them
