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Biochemistry 2 Flashcards

1
Q

oxidation

A
  • gain oxygen
  • lose hydrogen
  • lose electrons
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2
Q

reduction

A
  • lose oxygen
  • gain hydrogen
  • gain electrons
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3
Q

where does glycolysis occur?

is oxygen needed?

A
  • cytosol

- no

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4
Q

where does the PDC/Krebs cycle occur

is oxygen needed?

A
  • cytosol (prokaryotes)
  • mitochondrial matrix (eukaryotes)
  • indirectly needed
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5
Q

where does the ETC/Ox phos occur?

is oxygen needed?

A
  • cytosol (prokaryotes)
  • inner mitochondrial membrane (eukaryotes)
  • yes directly
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6
Q

enzyme that converts glucose to glucose-6-phosphate

regulation

A
  • hexokinase
  • ATP used
    (-) G-6-P
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7
Q

enzyme that converts fructose-6-phosphate to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate

regulation

A
  • PFK-1
  • first committed step
  • ATP used
    (-) ATP, Citrate
    (+) AMP, F-2,6-bisP
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8
Q

enzyme that converts phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate

A
  • pyruvate kinase
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9
Q

PDC

A
  • 2 pyruvate put in
  • 2 acetyl CoA come out; produce 2 NADH and release CO2
  • oxidize pyruvate
  • reduce NAD+
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10
Q

Krebs

A
  • oxidative decarboxylation reactions
  • acetyl-CoA reacts with oxaloacetate - forms citrate with loss of CoA
  • 3 NADH, 1 FADH2 are produced per acetyl-CoA
  • 3 CO2 lost.
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11
Q

2 goals of ETC

A
  • oxidize (empty) the electron carriers

- make usable energy (ATP)

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12
Q

process of ETC

A
  • NADH oxidized at NADH dehydrogenase
  • FADH2 oxidized at coenzyme Q. Electrons from NADH in glycolysis also sent here.
  • electrons flow through cytc reductase, cytc, and cytc oxidase.
  • hydrogens pumped across inner membrane into outer membrane so matrix becomes more basic
  • hydrogens flow through ATP synthase to generate ATP.
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13
Q

number of ATP per NADH

number of ATP per FADH2

A
  • 2.5

- 1.5 (also for NADH from glycolysis)

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14
Q

number of ATP produced in glycolysis

A
  • 4 ATP total
  • 2 ATP needed at beginning
  • 2 ATP net
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15
Q

number of ATP produced in prokaryotes

A

32

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16
Q

number of ATP produced in eukaryotes

A

30

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17
Q

how many hydrogens to produce ATP

A
  • 4
  • 3 per turn
  • 1 to bring Pi in.
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18
Q

fermentation purpose

A
  • regenerates NAD+ (oxidize it)
  • reduce pyruvate
  • allows glycolysis to continue in absence of oxygen.
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19
Q

fermentation process

A
  • pyruvate reduced to ethanol (yeast) or lactic acid (muscle)
  • NAD+ produced.
  • CO2 released.
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20
Q

lactic acid in fermentation

A
  • lactate transported to liver to make pyruvate.
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21
Q

problems with fermentation

A
  • toxic end products

- not enough ATP leads to loss of total energy.

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22
Q

gluconeogenesis

A
  • pyruvate back to glucose
  • when dietary sources of glucose are unavailable and liver is out of glucose and glycogen.
  • occurs in the liver
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23
Q

enzyme that converts pyruvate to OAA

A
  • pyruvate carboxylase

- 2 ATP used

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24
Q

enzyme that converts OAA to PEP

A
  • pyruvate carboxykinase

- 2 GTP used

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25
enzyme that converts f-1,6-bisp to f-6-p
- f-1,6-bisphosphatase | - Pi released
26
enzyme that converts g-6-p to glucose
- g-6-phosphatase | - Pi released
27
regulation of f-1,6-bisphosphotase
(-) AMP, F-2,6-Bpase | (+) ATP
28
gluconeogenesis requires
- 4 ATP - 2 GTP - 2 NADH
29
hormonal regulation of insulin
- blood glucose high - stimulates F-2,6-BisP levels - stimulates PFK - stimulates glycolysis
30
hormonal regulation of glucagon
- blood glucose low - inhibits F-2,6-BisP levels - inhibits PFK - inhibits glycolysis
31
glycogenesis
- formation of glycogen | - stored in liver and lesser in skeletal muscle
32
process of glycogenesis
- glucose to glucose-6-phosphate (by hexokinase) use 1 ATP - glucose-6-phosphate to glucose-1-phosphate (by phosphoglucomutase) - glucose-1-phosphate to glycogen (glycogen synthase) - use of 1 UTP - under control of insulin
33
glycogenolysis
- breakdown of glycogen | - use of glucagon and epinephrine
34
process of glycogenolysis
- glycogen to glucose-1-phosphate (glycogen phosphorylase) - glucose-1-phosphate - glucose-6-phosphate (phosphoglucomutase) - glucose-6-phosphate to glucose by glucose-6-phosphatase - under control of glucagon
35
pentose phosphate pathway phases
- oxidative | - nonoxidative
36
oxidative phase
- G6P broken down into ribulose-5-phosphate and 2 NADPH by glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase.. - NADPH feeds back - irreversible.
37
nonoxidative phase
- Ribulose-5-phosphate and other carbons broken down to F-6-P and GAP (glycolytic intermediates) - also formed ribose-5-phosphate
38
role of NADPH
- reducing power for anabolic reactions (e.g., fatty acid synthesis) - reducing power to eliminate free radicals like during detoxification in the liver - inability to generate NADPH (G6PDH deficiency) leads to oxidative damage to RBCs and anemia.
39
role of ribulose-5-phosphate
- synthesize nucleotides | - RNA converted to deoxyribose for DNA.
40
breakdown of triglycerides
- broken down into 2 fatty acids and a monoglyceride. | - 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol
41
fatty acid conversion to acyl-CoA fatty acid activation in beta oxidation
- begins at outer mitochondrial membrane - conversion of fatty acid to acyl-CoA using acyl-CoA synthetase - costs 2 ATP
42
beta oxidation of fatty acids
- 4 reactions to cleave bond between alpha and beta carbons to free acetyl-CoA and generate FADH2 and NADH - use dehydrogenase to add double bond - use thiolase to cleave - each round cleaves a 2 carbon acetyl-CoA - final round cleaves a 4 carbon acetyl-CoA
43
calculate the number of times through the cycle
(#carbons/2) - 1 = that many NADH, FADH2 +1 = that many acetyl-CoA
44
beta oxidation of unsaturated fats
- isomerize the double bond in an additional step if the double bond is in the wrong position. - then same thing.
45
fatty acid synthesis starting material
- acetyl-coA + bicarbonate -> malonyl CoA - use of 2 ATP - by acetyl-CoA carboxylase
46
activation of fatty acid synthesis
- acetyl-CoA + ACP -> acetyl-ACP + CoA (shifted to another part of the enzyme) - malonyl-CoA + ACP -> malonyl-ACP + CoA
47
elongation of fatty acid synthesis
- combine acetyl-ACP and malonyl-ACP - use of 2 NADPH from PPP to provide energy. - addition and loss of CO2 drives unfavorable reactions. - For every 2 carbons you add, you need 2 NADPH
48
location of fatty acid oxidation
- mitochondrial matrix
49
fatty acid oxidation linked to
- CoA
50
coenzymes in fatty acid oxidation
- NAD+, FAD
51
energy cost in fatty acid oxidation
- 2 ATP
52
location of fatty acid synthesis
- cytosol
53
fatty acid synthesis linked to
- acyl carrier protein
54
fatty acid synthesis coenzymes
- NADPH
55
energy cost in fatty acid synthesis
lots of ATP to convert acetyl-CoA to malonyl-CoA
56
ketogenesis
- during long term starvation, blood glucose levels fall - fatty acids oxidized to form acetyl-CoA - levels of acetyl-CoA increase - some feeds into Krebs - others react to form ketone bodies
57
formation of ketone bodies
- two acetyl-CoA combine to form acetoacetate | - aceteoacetate broken down into hydroxybutyrate and acetone.
58
type I diabetes
- no insulin. glucose can't get into cell - patient relies on fatty acid oxidation for acetyl-CoA - so many acetyl-CoA. some converted to ketone bodies. - DKA - fatigue, confusion, fruity breathe (acetone)
59
ketone bodies
- soluble in blood - cross blood bran barrier - reconverted to acetyl-CoA for fuel - brain cannot use fats as fuel - very acidic.
60
glucose high
- make ATP in glycolysis - stored as glycogen - acetyl CoA from PDC make fatty acids
61
glucose low
- break down glycogen | - gluconeogenesis
62
starved state (all glycogen stores used)
- fatty acid breakdown - free fatty acids - Beta oxidation - acetyl-coA - (Krebs and ketone bodies) - glycerol - gluconeogenesis
63
what can pass easily through the blood-brain barrier
- small, hydrophobic molecules. | - charged things do not cross membranes.
64
if you lose carbon as CO2
- you will generate a reduced electron carrier such as NADH.
65
primary source of brain during starvation
- ketone bodies being converted to acetyl-CoA
66
protein catabolism
- break down protein from diet into individual amino aids using proteases - individual amino acids broken into amino group and carbon skeleton - individual amino acids can be used for protein synthesis.
67
amino group used for
- nitrogenous compounds (bases in DNA or RNA) - urea cycle (waste product via kidneys) - happening in liver
68
carbon skeleton used for
- glucogenic amino acids (used to generate glucose in gluconeogenesis) - ketogenic amino acids (lysine and leucine) - converted into acetyl CoA for ketogenesis or Krebs

Princeton Bio (14 decks)

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