Behave 1 Flashcards
evolutionary biology
the subfield of biology that studies the evolutionary processes that produced the diversity of life on Earth, starting from a single common ancestor. These processes include natural selection, common descent, and speciation. “…and if you’re an evolutionary biologist, you’d say, ‘Because over the course of millions of years, chickens that responded to such gestures at a time that they were fertile left more copies of their genes, and thus this is now an innate behavior in chickens,” and so on, thinking in categories, in differing scientific disciplines of explanation. MD - evolutionary biology show the phylogenetic tree that spreads out from a single common ancestor to a diversity of life. it studies the evolutionary processes that led to this.
continuum
a continuous sequence in which adjacent elements are not perceptibly different from each other, although the extremes are quite distinct: at the fast end of the fast-slow continuum. Latin continuus, from continēre to hold together “For example, the visual spectrum is a continuum of wavelengths from violet to red, and it is arbitrary where boundaries are put for different colors. Show someone two roughly similar colors. If the color-name boundary in that person’s language happens to fall between the two colors, the person will overestimate the difference between the two.” MD - sounds like continuous. num (name) without clear parts. Bolivian Amazonian language Tsimane’ has only three words that everyone knows, corresponding to black, white and red. orange is in between red and yellow. The Human eyes perceive orange when observing light with a dominant wavelength between roughly 585 and 620 nanometres. Ired It has a dominant wavelength of approximately 625–740 nanometres.[1] It where red ends and orange begins red, orange, yellow , because it is a continuum it is hard to know.
libidinal
of relating to libido (sexual urge or desire) “perhaps it is a foul act: you’ve touched the arm of someone, starting a chain of libidinal events that betray a loved one.” (21) MD - Mark Spitz in a speedo, speaks to our and his libido. (I think I already have this picc)
hypothalamus
A small but important region of the brain that monitors many body processes and regulates them by way of the autonomic nervous system and through hormones released by the pituitary gland.
a part of the brain that lies beneath the thalamus and regulates the autonomic nervous system through processing limbic responses. Part of the brain that allows the emotional limbic system to influence the autonomic function. MD - hypo - below , thalamus (brainpart) 1. midbrain and brain stem circuitry votes to urinate when bladder is full 2. be exposed to something terrifying and limbic structures through the hypothalamus persuade the midbrain and brain stem to also urinate. “It’s the means by which the limbic system influences autonomic function, how layer 2 talks to layer 1. Have a full bladder with its muscle walls distended, and midbrain/brain-stem circuitry votes for urinating. Be exposed to something sufficiently terrifying, and limbic structures, via the hypothalamus, persuade the midbrain and brain stem to do the same. This is how emotions change bodily functions, why limbic roads eventually lead to the hypothalamus.” “It’s the means by which the limbic system influences autonomic function, how layer 2 talks to layer 1.” The hypothalamus, a limbic structure, is the interface between layers 1 and 2, between core regulatory and emotional parts of the brain.” MD - if you see a charging hippo, you will be terrified and your hypothalamus will influence your anus to tighten up (you won’t need to poop, you will run!).
midbrain
the upper section of the brain stem, which is involved with hearing and visual reflexes “Have a full bladder with its muscle walls distended, and midbrain/brain-stem circuitry votes for urinating. Be exposed to something sufficiently terrifying , and limbic structures, via the hypothalamus, persuade the midbrain and brain stem to do the same.” (26)
brain stem
The part of the brain that connects to the spinal cord and controls vital functions such as breathing and heart rate. “Have a full bladder with its muscle walls distended, and midbrain/brain-stem circuitry votes for urinating. Be exposed to something sufficiently terrifying , and limbic structures, via the hypothalamus, persuade the midbrain and brain stem to do the same.” (26) MD - Stem of an apple with the apple having a spinal cord
autonomic nervous system
the part of the nervous system responsible for control of the bodily functions not consciously directed, such as breathing, the heartbeat, and digestive processes. “All of this is automatic, or ‘autonomic.’ And thus the midbrain and brainstem regions, along with their projections down the spine and out to the body, are collectively termed the ‘autonomic nervous system.’…The autonomic nervous system has two parts-the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, with fairly opposite functions.” (26) MD - it’s automatic
sympathetic nervous system (SNS)
A part of the nervous system that serves to accelerate the heart rate, constrict blood vessels, and raise blood pressure. “To use the feeble joke told to first-year medical students, the SNS mediates the ‘four Fs - fear, fight, flight, and sex.’ Particular midbrain/brain-stem nuclei send long SNS projections down the spine and on to outposts throughout the body, where the axon terminals release the neurotransmitter norepinephrine. “ 26-27 MD - 4 F’s. Sympathetic because it is the body responding to perceived danger. Allows you to handle the crisis of the now where as parasympathetic allows you to handle everything else. (I already have this. shark photo and scuba)
norepinephrine
released from postganglionic fibers in the sympathetic nervous system. It’s what crosses the synapse and creates a response in the effector, like opening up blood vessels that lead to leg muscles. Norepinephrine, also called noradrenaline, substance that is released predominantly from the ends of sympathetic nerve fibers and that acts to increase the force of skeletal muscle contraction and the rate and force of contraction of the heart. The actions of norepinephrine are vital to the fight-or-flight response, whereby the body prepares to react to or retreat from an acute threat. Particular midbrain/brain-stem nuclei send long SNS projections down the spine and on to outposts throughout the body, where the axon terminals release the neurotransmitter norepinephrine. “ 26-27 MD - nose of an elephant - norepinephrine. think of the trunk as the post ganglionic fibers. tail bulb is brain tail is preganglionic fiber in the body of the elephant it releases ACh that binds to the postganslionic fiber and moves down the nose where norepinephrine is released to effector muscle causing the blood vessels to relax to allow more blood flow to the legs. (I have this)
parasympathetic nervous system (PNS)
The part of the involuntary nervous system that serves to slow the heart rate, increase intestinal and glandular activity, and relax the sphincter muscles. “The autonomic nervous system has two parts-the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, with fairly opposite functions.” (26) MD - rest and digest. controls the body at rest - like it is paralyzed
sphincter muscles
a ring of muscle surrounding and serving to guard or close an opening or tube, such as the anus or the openings of the stomach. MD - sphincter around a sprinkler - a ring of muscle - serving to guard or close an opening or tube.
neurotransmitter versus hormone
Though neurotransmitters are products of your nervous system and hormones are products of the endocrine system, a compound can be considered either a neurotransmitter or a hormone even though it hasn’t changed at all, depending on where it happens to be operating in your body. For example, norepinephrine when it’s released by a neuron and travelling across a synapse, it’s a neurotransimtter. If it’s being secreted by a gland into the blood stream for widespread distribution it’s a hormone. MD - elephant nose leading to effector organs and then leading to
Acetylcholine (ACh) (SNS)
The neurotransmitter used by preganglionic fibers to commnicate in the SNS. It’s also what the rest of the peripheral nervous system and lots of the central nervous system uses to communicate. preganglionic fibers of the sympathetic nervous system release acetylcholine. “Meanwhile, a pharmacopeia of drugs are available to decrease signaling across synapses, and you can see what their underlying mechanisms are going to include-blocking its access to its receptor, and so on. Fun example: Acetylcholine stimulates your diaphragm to contract. Curare, the poison used in darts by Amazonian tribes, blocks acetylcholine receptors. You stop breathing.” (694) MD - elephant image
smooth muscle
the muscle that controls all the involuntary actions of hollow organs like the stomach, bladder, and blood vessels. MD - it is the only muscle not striated like skeletal and cardiac muscle.
alpha receptors (on blood vessels)
Receptors on some blood vessels that when norepinephrine or epinephrine bind to them, they make the smooth muscle cells contract thereby restricting blood flow. Alpha-receptors are located on the arteries. When the alpha receptor is stimulated by epinephrine or norepinephrine, the arteries constrict. This increases the blood pressure and the blood flow returning to the heart.Dec on some blood vessels there are receptors called alpha receptors. When norepinephrine, or epinephrine, bind to these receptors, they make those smooth muscle cells contract, thereby restricting blood flow. MD - alpha - alpha dog chocking the blood vessel, makes the blood vessels constrict.
beta receptors (on blood vessels)
on smooth muscle cells that control other blood vessels, there are lots of beta receptors for epinephrine and norepinephrine, and when they are activated, they make the muscles relax, letting more blood flow through. The smooth muscles around your blood vessels which feed your skeletal muscles are covered with beta receptors because you want those blood vessels to relax, and provide plenty of oxygen to the muscles in your arms and legs. And since running away is more important than digesting your dinner, the blood vessels leading to your stomach adn intestines have lots of alpha receptors, which reduce blood flow to those areas because the burrito can wait till you’re away. MD - Beta - think of sitting on the dock of a bay - relaxing, blood vessels in a beach chair relaxing expanding.
ganglion (pl. ganglia)
a mass of nerve tissue containing cell bodies of neurons external to the brain or spinal cord. They work as a relay station for nerve signals. One nerve enters and another nerve exits from each ganglion (singular: ganglion plural: ganglia). MD - a gang is a mass of tissue containing cell bodies of neurons external to the brain.
preganglionic neurons
a neuron who’s cell body originates in the brainstem or spinal cord. Its axon usually extends to a ganglion, where it synapses with a postganglionic neuron. originate in the brainstem or the spinal cord. In the SNS the preganglionic fibers release ACh.
postganlionic neurons (ganglion cells)
In the autonomic nervous system, fibers from the ganglion to the effector organ are called postganglionic fibers. MD - picture
effector
an organ or cell that acts in response to a stimulus: [as modifier] : effector cells. “Norepinephrine’s effector is smooth muscle the muscle that controls all the involuntary actions of hollow organs like the stomach, bladder, and blood vessels.” MD - When a receptor is stimulated, it sends a signal along the nerve cells (called neurons) to the central nervous system. (See diagram to the left.) Usually, the brain - which is part of the nervous system - coordinates a response. An effector is any part of the body that produces the response.
innervates
to supply with nerves MD -
Also in these species blood vessels are richly innervated.
MD - in prefix means in, to put in nerves. picutre nerves being installed to blood vessels. able to influence the contraction or dilation of the vessels
receptor (sesnory)
a specialized nerve cell or the ending of a sensory neruon that responds to a specific stimulus by sending signals to the central nervous system.
“Vision is our foremost sense. Nearly three-quarters of the body’s senosry receptors are assigned to the eyses, specifically to the retina, the thin layer that marks the beginning of the path from light to information.” (178)
Old French receptour or directly from Latin receptor, agent noun from recipere (see receive).
MD - picture an organ or cell receiving When a receptor is stimulated, it sends a signal along the nerve cells (called neurons) to the central nervous system. (See diagram to the left.) Usually, the brain - which is part of the nervous system - coordinates a response. An effector is any part of the body that produces the response.
sensory neruon
nerve that carries sensory information toward the central nervous system (CNS).
“touch receptors in the skin are just modified dendrites at the end of senosory neurons” (way we work 166)
MD - picture the sensory neuron, the receptor is a part of the snesory neuron. As glass hsards slice into the sole of the left foot, pain receptors generate signals that travel at warp speed along sensory neurons to the sacral region of the spinal cord.
proteins
one of a group of varied and versatile substances, made mainly from carbon hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen atoms and built from subunits called amino acids that perform a wide range of functions as fro example, enzymes, anti
any of a class of nitrogenous organic compounds that consist of large molecules composed of one or more long chains of amino acids and are an essential part of all living organisms, especially as structural components of body tissues such as muscle, hair, collagen, etc., and as enzymes and antibodies. “Proteins are a class of organic compounds that are the most abundant molecules in living systems. They are hugely important, since numerous hormones, neurotransmitters, and messengers of the immune system are made of protein; ditto for the receptors that respond to those messengers, the enzymes that construct or degrade them,* the scaffolding that shapes a cell, and so on.” (loc 11033) MD -
amino acid
one of a group of 20 different substances that are the building blocks of proteins.
What determines the shape and function of a protein? Any given protein is made of a string of amino acids. There are about 20 different types of amino acids—including some familiar ones like tryptophan and glutamate (11045)
how many amino acids long is a typical protein?
Your typical protein is about 300 amino acids long, and with 20 different amino acid types, there are nearly 10 to the 400 possible sequences (that’s ten followed by four hundred zeros)—more atoms than there are in the universe.* The amino acid sequence of a protein influences the unique shape(s) of that protein. Dogma used to be that amino acid sequence determines the shape(s) of that protein, but it turns out that the shape is also subtly altered by things like temperature and acidity—in other words, environmental influences.
protein picture
nucleotides
One of a group of building blocks used to construct DNA and RNA molecules consisting of a base, a sugar, and a phosphorus-containing group.
DNA is another class of organic compounds, and just as there are roughly 20 different types of amino acids, there are 4 different “letters” (called nucleotides) that make up DNA. A sequence of 3 nucleotides (called a codon) codes for a single amino acid. If there are 4 different types of nucleotides, and each codon is 3 nucleotides long, there can be a total of 64 different codons (4 possibilities in the first place × 4 in the second × 4 in the third = 64). A few of those 64 are reserved to signal the end of a gene, and after eliminating those “stop codons,” there are 61 different codons coding for 20 different amino acids. Therefore, there is “redundancy”— almost all amino acids can be specified by more than one unique codon (an average of about 3, i.e., 61/20). Typically the different codons coding for the same amino acid differ by only a single nucleotide.
MD - pictures from Mammoth memory. question, what do they mean. “consising of a base, sugar, and phosphorous containing group.
nuc, tides, - picture phosphorous match causing a nuclear explosion, picture tide - sugar, and then picture celo patras pyramid being a base (home base).
genome
The entire collection of DNA is called the genome, coding for all of the tens of thousands of genes in an organism; “sequencing” the genome means determining the unique sequence of the billions of nucleotides that make up that organism’s genome. That stretch of DNA is so long (containing roughly twenty thousand genes in humans) that it has to be broken into separate volumes, called chromosomes. This.
what is the purpose of RNA
Proteins need to be constructed all over the cell. “DNA library is found in the center of the cell, in the nucleus. Proteins, however, occur all over the cell, are constructed all over it (just think of proteins in the axon terminals of a spinal neuron in a blue whale, terminals that are light-years away from that neuron’s nucleus). How do you get the DNA information out to where the protein is made? There is an intermediary that completes the picture. The unique nucleotide sequence in DNA that codes for a particular gene is copied into a string of similar nucleotide letters in a related compound called RNA. Any given chromosome contains a staggeringly long stretch of DNA, coding for one gene after another; in contrast, this stretch of RNA is only as long as the particular gene. In other words, a more manageable length. That RNA is then shipped to wherever it is supposed to be in the cell, where it then directs which amino acids are strung together in which sequence to form a protein (and there are amino acids floating around in a cell, ready to be grabbed for the protein-construction project). Think of RNA as a photocopy of a single page out of this vast twenty-thousand-page-long DNA encyclopedia.” “There are spinal cord neurons in blue whales that are half the length of a basketball court.”(loc 10651) MD Spinal Neuron in a blue whale. show the whale’s length. and then zoom in on the neuron. show that the nucleus is far from the axon terminals where multiple copies of the cognate protein must wind up in the single neurons thousands of axon terminals.
Why it is said we share 98 percent of our DNA with chimps and only 50 percent with full siblings
Comparisons between human and chimp genes are about types of traits, whereas with full siblings they are about versions of those traits. Finally, a clarification of the confusion where two sound bites about genetics collide. The first is that, on the average, full (non–identical twin) siblings share 50 percent of their genes.* The other is that we share 98 percent of our genes with chimps. So are we more related to chimps than to our siblings? No. Comparisons between humans and chimps are about types of traits—we both have genes coding for traits related to having, for example, eyes, muscle fibers, or dopamine receptors, and both lack genes related to having, for example, gills, antennae, or flower petals. So there’s 98 percent overlap at that level of comparison. But comparison between any two humans is about versions of those traits—both have a gene that codes for, say, this thing called eye color, but do they share the version that codes for the same particular color? Same for blood type, type of dopamine receptor, and so on. We have 50 percent overlap with siblings at this level of comparison. MD - done
adenine
Adenine is a nucleobase. It is one of the four nucleobases in the nucleic acid of DNA that are represented by the letters G–C–A–T.
cytosine
a compound found in living tissue as a constituent base of nucleic acids. It is paired with guanine in double-stranded DNA.
thymine
Thymine is one of the four nucleobases in the nucleic acid of DNA that are represented by the letters G–C–A–T.
guanine
Guanine is one of the four main nucleobases found in the nucleic acids DNA and RNA, the others being adenine, cytosine, and thymine.
