Attitudes and behaviour II - research

Question 1

Madden et al. (1992)

Answer 1

Research in social psychology has extensively referenced and used Fishbein and Ajzen’s theory of reasoned action to predict and understand motivational influences on behavior Recently Ajzen has proposed an extension of the theory by including perceptions of behavioral control as an additional predictor of intentions and behavior. The present research compared Ajzen’s theory of planned behavior with the theory of reasoned action for 10 behaviors chosen to represent a range with respect to control over performing the behavior. he results indicate that inclusion of perceived behavioral control enhances the prediction of behavioral intention and behavior Consistent with the theory of planned behavior, the effects of perceived behavioral control on a target behavior are most vivid when the behavior presents some problem with respect to control.

Question 2

Breslin et al. (2019)

Answer 2

Recent evidence suggests that attempts to tackle mental health stigma in athletes should include psychological theory to understand the competitive sport environment. Using the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA), the aim was to determine what demographic and psychological factors predicted mental health stigma among athletes. Athletes (n = 471) completed a questionnaire, and a multiple linear regression analyses was conducted, specifying demographic (e.g., gender), psychological (e.g., norms) and moderating variables (e.g., sport type) as predictors of stigma-related intentions to socialise with individuals who are living with a mental health condition. TRA models explained a significant amount of variance for intentions, in which knowledge about and exposure to individuals with mental health conditions significantly predicted better intentions. Further, athletes competing in team sports, particularly females, had stronger intentions. This was the first study to explore mental health stigma using the TRA. Findings can inform the development of mental health awareness programs for athletes.

Question 3

McEachan et al. (2016)

Answer 3

Background
Reasoned action approach (RAA) includes subcomponents of attitude (experiential/instrumental), perceived norm (injunctive/descriptive), and perceived behavioral control (capacity/autonomy) to predict intention and behavior.

Purpose
To provide a meta-analysis of the RAA for health behaviors focusing on comparing the pairs of RAA subcomponents and differences between health protection and health-risk behaviors.

Methods
The present research reports a meta-analysis of correlational tests of RAA subcomponents, examination of moderators, and combined effects of subcomponents on intention and behavior. Regressions were used to predict intention and behavior based on data from studies measuring all variables.

Results
Capacity and experiential attitude had large, and other constructs had small-medium-sized correlations with intention; all constructs except autonomy were significant independent predictors of intention in regressions. Intention, capacity, and experiential attitude had medium-large, and other constructs had small-medium-sized correlations with behavior; intention, capacity, experiential attitude, and descriptive norm were significant independent predictors of behavior in regressions.

Conclusions
The RAA subcomponents have utility in predicting and understanding health behaviors.

Question 4

Lindsey (2017)

Answer 4

TRA and eating behaviour

persuasive messages can influence healthy eating behaviours but the mechanism is not consistent with TRA predictions

Question 5

Hall et al. (2019)

Answer 5

Purpose: To identify and understand factors influencing farmers’ decisions to engage with extension activities. To understand farmer segments and how these factors vary in order to develop recommendations for future extension delivery.

Methodology: Qualitative data was obtained through semi-structured interviews with 30 Tasmanian dairy farmers. The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) framework was used to identify and explore factors influencing farmer engagement intentions and behaviour.

Findings: There was a negative effect of social influence on experienced farmers’ intention to re-engage with extension, due to the belief extension activities were targeted to less experienced, younger farmers. Perceived control factors limiting engagement included lack of confidence about existing knowledge, resulting in farmers perceiving extension activities as confronting.

Practical implications: Key factors influencing intention to engage and continued engagement with extension were identified. These findings will inform future design and targeting of extension activities to improve initial and continued engagement. Subsequent recommendations are presented.

Theoretical implications: Previous TPB studies on adoption as an outcome of extension have typically focused on quantifying adoption predictions, rather than exploring how social factors interact and influence intentions and behaviours. This paper demonstrates how the TPB can be qualitatively applied to better understand farmer decision making, in this instance with respect to their initial and continued engagement with extension.

Originality/value: This paper demonstrates how the TPB can provide an evidence-based framework to qualitatively explore farmer intentions and behaviour. This approach has led to new insights into farmer decision making that will inform improvements in future extension development.

Question 6

Roos and Hahn (2017)

Answer 6

Collaborative consumption is proposed as a potential step beyond unsustainable linear consumption patterns toward more sustainable consumption practices. Despite mounting interest in the topic, little is known about the determinants of this consumer behavior. We use an extended theory of planned behavior to examine the relative influence of consumers’ personal norms and the theory’s basic sociopsychological variables attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control on collaborative consumption. Moreover, we use this framework to examine consumers’ underlying value and belief structure regarding collaborative consumption. We measure these aspects for 224 consumers in a survey and then assess their self-reported collaborative consumption behavior in a second survey. Our structural model fits the data well. Collaborative consumption is more strongly—through intentions—influenced by personal norms and attitudes than by subjective norms. Personal norms to consume collaboratively are determined by consumers’ altruistic, biospheric, and egoistic value orientations. Cost savings, efficient use of resources, and community with others are found to be consumers’ attitudinal beliefs underlying collaborative consumption. We conclude that collaborative consumption can be pin-pointed neither as a mere form of economic exchange nor as a primarily normative form of sharing resources. Instead, collaborative consumption is determined by economic/egoistic (e.g., cost savings) and normative (e.g., altruistic and biospheric value orientations) motives. Implications for collaborative consumption research, the theory of planned behavior, and practitioners are discussed.

Question 7

Van den Broucke et al. (2018)

Answer 7

TPB and student sleep habits

perceived advantages and disadvantages, norms and control predicted intentions to avoid poor sleep patterns, naps etc.

also influenced current behaviour

Question 8

Albarracin et al. (2001)

Answer 8

TRA and condom use

condom use related to intentions

intentions based on attitudes and SNs

attitudes associated with behavioural beliefs

SNs associated with normative beliefs

Question 9

Taylor and Todd (1995)

Answer 9

The Theory of Planned Behavior, an extension of the well-known Theory of Reasoned Action, is proposed as a model to predict consumer adoption intention. Three variations of the Theory of Planned Behavior are examined and compared to the Theory of Reasoned Action. The appropriateness of each model is assessed with data from a consumer setting. Structural equation modelling using maximum likelihood estimation for the four models revealed that the traditional forms of the Theory of Reasoned Action and the Theory of Planned Behavior fit the data adequately. Decomposing the belief structures and allowing for crossover effects in the Theory of Planned Behavior resulted in improvements in model prediction. The application of each model to theory development and management intervention is explored.

Question 10

Taylor and Todd (1995)

Answer 10

The Theory of Planned Behavior, an extension of the well-known Theory of Reasoned Action, is proposed as a model to predict consumer adoption intention. Three variations of the Theory of Planned Behavior are examined and compared to the Theory of Reasoned Action. The appropriateness of each model is assessed with data from a consumer setting. Structural equation modelling using maximum likelihood estimation for the four models revealed that the traditional forms of the Theory of Reasoned Action and the Theory of Planned Behavior fit the data adequately. Decomposing the belief structures and allowing for crossover effects in the Theory of Planned Behavior resulted in improvements in model prediction. The application of each model to theory development and management intervention is explored.

Question 11

Garay et al. (2018)

Answer 11

Drawing on Taylor and Todd’s “decomposed theory of planned behavior,” this study explores the sustainability beliefs, attitudes, social norms, perceived behavioral controls, and behavioral intentions of accommodation managers and considers how these relate to their uptake of water-related innovations. An online survey is used to capture data from more than 300 accommodation establishments located in Catalonia (Spain). Using a structural equation model to interpret the data, 17 hypotheses are established, of which 15 are found to be significant. The findings show how the second-order constructs informed by organizational innovation literature explain the attitudes, social norms, and perceived behavioral controls of the managers; these factors inform 56% of the sustainability behavioral intentions. We explore the cognitive mechanisms that motivate managers to introduce sustainability practices in their businesses. We contribute to theory by demonstrating the benefits of studying the belief structures that inform taking sustainability actions from the perspective of innovation.

Question 12

Brooks et al. (2018)

Answer 12

Purpose: People with chronic pain and related disability often report motivational difficulties with engaging in health-promoting behaviors. Although health promotion models of self-determination theory (SDT) and theory of planned behavior (TPB) have been shown to explain the motivational processes behind health behaviors in the general population, there is limited theoretical research among persons with chronic pain. This study examined the integration of such theories relevant to physical activity and exercise behavior among pain populations. Research Method: Secondary data analyses were conducted using cross-sectional surveys from 198 participants with chronic musculoskeletal pain recruited from U.S. clinics and community networks. The primary outcome was self-reported physical activity and exercise participation. Predictor variables included pain intensity, functional disability, and SDT and TPB measures. Hierarchical regression analysis was conducted to examine the associations between these variables. Results: Findings demonstrated that in the first step, functional disability was associated with physical activity and exercise; and in the second step, all SDT factors were associated with physical activity and exercise. In the final step of the model, only certain SDT and TPB factors were associated with physical activity and exercise. Conclusions: Despite preexisting pain and functional disability, the findings suggest that health behavior factors from both SDT and TPB are associated with physical activity and exercise participation. This line of research should encourage rehabilitation professionals to recommend regular physical activity and exercise, while simultaneously addressing and monitoring the SDT and TPB factors that are well-timed and appropriate for persons with chronic pain through motivation-oriented rehabilitation approaches.

Question 13

Ajzen and Kruglanski (2019)

Answer 13

The theory of planned behavior (TPB; Ajzen, 1991, 2012), used widely for the prediction and modification of human actions, is behavior centered. According to the TPB, behavioral intentions, the immediate precursors of behavior, are determined by attitude toward the behavior, subjective norm with respect to the behavior, and perceived control over the behavior. In contrast, goal systems theory (GST; Kruglanski et al., 2002) is goal centered. It assumes that behavior typically serves as a means to an individual’s goals. To extend the TPB’s range of application and augment its explanatory and predictive power, we integrate these two theoretical perspectives in a proposed theory of reasoned goal pursuit. We conclude that the formation of a behavioral intention is determined by motivation to perform a behavior in light of alternative options and in the context of the individual’s currently active goals

Question 14

McBride et al. (2020)

Answer 14

The proliferation of cell phones and the growing culture of constant connectivity has introduced a plethora of new challenges for mobile citizens. One of the major challenges transportation professionals desire to address involves the use of cell phones to text while driving, especially for less experienced drivers. In this study, the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) in conjunction with psycho-social factors is utilized to explore the intention to text while driving among young drivers. The results of a survey administered to 524 drivers suggest that the TPB constructs (attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control) along with the perceived disadvantages of abstention and age of the driver explain a significant amount of variance in the intention to send text messages while driving (adjusted R-2 = 0.71).

Question 15

Stevens et al. (2019)

Answer 15

assessed how affective attitudes and reactions help understand intensions for health behaviours

positive affective attitudes and anticipated regret (negative outcome) predicted intentions to engage in health behaviours

Question 16

Lawton et al. (2007)

Answer 16

Objective: Two studies assessed the relative contribution of affective and instrumental beliefs to the prediction of 2 risk behaviors: driving above the speed limit and smoking. Design: Both studies took the form of large-scale questionnaire surveys (Study 1, N = 292; Study 2, N = 500) measuring instrumental and affective beliefs and self-reported behavior. In both cases, behavior was also measured objectively. Outcome measures: In Study 1, speeding behavior was measured via infrared camera along sections of road with 30 mph, 40 mph, and 60 mph speed limits. Self-reports of speeding in these same contexts represented a 2nd dependent variable. In Study 2, level of smoking was measured via a carbon monoxide monitor, and participants were asked to indicate the number of cigarettes they smoked in a week. Results: In Study 1, positive and negative instrumental and affective beliefs were significant predictors of self-reported speed. The most powerful predictor was negative affective beliefs. Observed speed was predicted by negative affective beliefs only. In Study 2, the significant predictors of self-reported smoking and objective measures of smoking were positive and negative affective beliefs. Conclusion: The findings indicate the importance of affective beliefs across 2 health risk behaviors. Implications for social cognition models and interventions are discussed.

Question 17

Klasko-Foster (2019)

Answer 17

Perceived risk, which has cognitive, affective, and experiential components, is hypothesized to be a central influence on decision making about health behavioral engagement. However, risk is typically measured solely in cognitive terms. Oftentimes, objective risk appraisals do not match cognitively-based subjective risk appraisals. Thus, individuals at increased risk for a negative health outcome, such as a sexually transmitted infection (STI), may not choose to perform a preventive behavior, even if they could greatly benefit from its use. As such, it is plausible that a better understanding of how individuals feel about their personal risk for STIs (affective components of risk) or their gut-level assessment of personal vulnerability (experiential risk) may shed light on the disconnect between increased risk for STI acquisition and lack of behavioral engagement in primary prevention strategies. Three studies were conducted to accomplish the following aims: 1) to assess how the interplay between affective and cognitive components of the perceived risk construct impact primary prevention strategies for young adults in a population with an average risk distribution for STIs; 2) to assess how the interplay between affective, cognitive, and experiential components of the perceived risk construct impact primary prevention strategies for adults in a high risk population for STIs; 3) to explore how affect (feelings), cognitions (beliefs), and experiential risk (heuristics) associated with negative health outcomes related to STIs shape risk judgments.

Question 18

Loewenstein et al. (2001)

Answer 18

Virtually all current theories of choice under risk or uncertainty are cognitive and consequentialist. They assume that people assess the desirability and likelihood of possible outcomes of choice alternatives and integrate this information through some type of expectation-based calculus to arrive at a decision. The authors propose an alternative theoretical perspective, the risk-as-feelings hypothesis, that highlights the role of affect experienced at the moment of decision making. Drawing on research from clinical, physiological, and other subfields of psychology, they show that emotional reactions to risky situations often diverge from cognitive assessments of those risks. When such divergence occurs, emotional reactions often drive behavior. The risk-as-feelings hypothesis is shown to explain a wide range of phenomena that have resisted interpretation in cognitive–consequentialist terms

Question 19

Ferrer et al. (2018)

Answer 19

Although risk perception is a key concept in many health behavior theories, little research has explicitly tested when risk perception predicts motivation to take protective action against a health threat (protection motivation). The present study tackled this question by (a) adopting a multidimensional model of risk perception that comprises deliberative, affective, and experiential components (the TRIRISK model), and (b) taking a person-by-situation approach. We leveraged a highly intensive within-subjects paradigm to test features of the health threat (i.e., perceived severity) and individual differences (e.g., emotion reappraisal) as moderators of the relationship between the three types of risk perception and protection motivation in a within-subjects design. Multi-level modeling of 2968 observations (32 health threats across 94 participants) showed interactions among the TRIRISK components and moderation both by person-level and situational factors. For instance, affective risk perception better predicted protection motivation when deliberative risk perception was high, when the threat was less severe, and among participants who engage less in emotional reappraisal. These findings support the TRIRISK model and offer new insights into when risk perceptions predict protection motivation.

Question 20

Szabo et al. (2019)

Answer 20

Methods: A sample of adolescents (Szeged, Hungary, N = 274, ages 14-19 years; mean age = 15.95 years, S.D. = 1.17 years; 54% males) was recruited to participate in the study. Data were collected from self-administered/anonymous questionnaires. Besides descriptive statistics, correlations and a path analysis were applied to examine the relationships between self-control, self-risk perception, eating motivations and healthy eating attitudes.

Results: Self-control played a decisive role, both directly and indirectly in healthy eating attitudes, while self-risk-perception had a less important mediating role. Eating motives were directly related to eating attitudes but in a different way: health motives were positively associated with healthy eating attitudes, while social and external motives had a negative relationship.

Conclusions: The path analysis suggests that self-control indeed plays an important role in developing healthy attitudes. While health motives play a more decisive role in health-related attitudes than we might expect, self-risk perception plays a limited role perhaps due to the notion that adolescents typically present a feeling of invulnerability. These findings suggest that despite their diminished self-risk perception, adolescents tend to be health conscious in nutrition, particularly when it combines with the underlying impact of self-control and health motives.

Question 21

Trafimow and Finlay (1996)

Answer 21

Intentions to perform most behaviors are more controlled by attitudes than by subjective norms. Yet subjective norms typically account for a significant, albeit small, proportion of unique variance in intentions. To explore the hypothesis that this effect can be explained largely by individual differences in the degree to which some people are apt to be more under normative control, subjects were asked to indicate their intentions, attitudes, and subjective norms toward performing 30 behaviors. Between-subjects and within-subjects analyses were performed. The within-subjects analyses revealed important differences in whether subjects are under attitudinal or normative control across the behaviors. Further, when “normatively controlled” subjects were excluded from the sample, the significant effects of subjective norms on intentions that were obtained in previous between-subjects analyses were eliminated, and the attitudinal effects were augmented. Finally, this individual difference was associated with the strength of the collective self;

Question 22

Robstad et al. (2019)

Answer 22

Aims To examine qualified intensive care nurses’ implicit and explicit attitudes towards obese intensive care patients and whether their attitudes are associated with their behavioural intentions towards these patients. Background Obese intensive care patients may experience more stress than do normal-weight patients. Intensive care nurses’ attitudes and the way they address their care are thus vital. Despite a range of studies revealing that health professionals hold anti-fat attitudes towards obese patients, there is a lack of knowledge about intensive care nurses’ implicit and explicit attitudes and if such attitudes are associated with behavioural intention. Design A cross-sectional survey. Methods From November 2017 - January 2018, a web-based survey was conducted with 159 qualified intensive care nurses (84.3% women, mean age 45.52 years) recruited through 16 intensive care units and Facebook. The survey consisted of implicit attitude tests, explicit bias scales, the Anti-fat Attitude questionnaire, vignettes measuring behavioural intention, and demographic questions. Results Intensive care nurses reported implicit preferences for thin over thick people and found obese individuals slightly ‘worse’ and ‘lazy’, comprising less willpower than thin individuals. Attitudes were not associated with behavioural intention. Conclusion This study provides new knowledge about qualified intensive care nurses’ anti-fat attitudes and behavioural intention towards obese intensive care patients. These findings should be acknowledged by policymakers, clinical healthcare providers and educators to secure optimal care for these patients. Impact Statement These results should be used in nursing attitude change programmes, in intensive care units, and among nursing educators, focusing on increasing nurses’ knowledge of the complexities of obesity. Further research on obese intensive care patients’ healthcare experiences and the impact that healthcare providers’ anti-fat attitudes and behaviours has on patients’ perceived care quality is needed.

Question 23

Carrera et al. (2019)

Answer 23

Introduction. Previous research supports that congruence in the construal level between a person’s mindset and predictors enhanced the strength of predictions. Because desired attitudes are more abstract than actual attitudes, we expected that desired attitudes would better predict behavioural intentions in people who present an abstract style of thinking. Objective. We tested this matching effect between desired attitudes and abstractness by measuring the construal level as a person’s base-rate tendency. Method. Participants (N = 105) reported their past experience and actual and desired attitudes towards eating products without added salt and their behavioural intentions. To classify participants according to an abstract or a concrete way of thinking, their first thought was coded using the linguistic category model (LCM). Results. The simple slopes analysis showed that desired attitudes significantly influenced behavioural intentions for participants with an abstract way of thinking. Conclusion. Our results support the relevance of desired attitudes in terms of behavioural predictions and extend the role of the construal level in the prediction and promotion of desirable but demanding behaviour in the framework of individual differences.

Question 24

Ursavas et al. (2019)

Answer 24

Technology acceptance model (TAM) is one of the models that is used to explain the acceptance and use of technology with user perceptions and attitudes. Some researchers argued that TAM should include external variables, such as subjective norms, to improve our understanding of the effect of social impact on technology acceptance. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of subjective norms on preservice and in-service teachers’ perceptions, attitudes and behavioural intention to use technology in Turkey. We adopted a multigroup confirmatory factor analysis method to establish measurement invariance across the groups and to investigate the relationships in the research model. The sample consisted of 324 preservice and 517 in-service teachers. Results revealed that attitude towards computer use was the most dominant predictor of behavioural intention in both preservice and in-service teachers. Subjective norms had a large total effect on behavioural intention in preservice teachers; however, the same effect was smaller in in-service teachers. Moreover, subjective norms played an important role in forming an attitude towards technology use in preservice teachers. On the other hand, in-service teachers considered the usefulness of technology in forming a positive attitude. We discussed the implications of the findings for both theory and practice. Practitioner Notes What is already known about the topic Technology acceptance model (TAM) is one of the most widely used models in technology acceptance and use. Acceptance and use of technology by preservice and in-service teachers are important for an effective integration process in educational settings. Social factors such as subjective norms impact technology acceptance and use behaviours of individuals. What this paper adds An extended TAM helps explain the technology acceptance and use behaviours of preservice and in-service teachers. Attitude towards computer use is a good predictor of both preservice and in-service teachers’ behavioural intention to use technology. Preservice and in-service teachers’ behavioural intention to use technology is affected by subjective norms. Subjective norms’ effect on forming an attitude towards computer use is greater in preservice teachers than it is in in-service teachers. Implications for practice and/or policy In teacher education programmes, instructors and administrators should require students to use technology in class activities and assignments and during internship practices to increase the possibility of students’ use of technology in their professional life. At schools, administrators and supervisors should mandate teachers to use technology that is easy to use in their classes, but they should also show teachers how technology can benefit their instructional practices. Instructional designers and IT developers should consider the affordances offered by ICT and provide teachers with quality, effective and easily administered user manuals or job aids.

Question 25

Lee and Tanusia (2016)

Answer 25

Technology acceptance model (TAM) is one of the models that is used to explain the acceptance and use of technology with user perceptions and attitudes. Some researchers argued that TAM should include external variables, such as subjective norms, to improve our understanding of the effect of social impact on technology acceptance. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of subjective norms on preservice and in-service teachers’ perceptions, attitudes and behavioural intention to use technology in Turkey. We adopted a multigroup confirmatory factor analysis method to establish measurement invariance across the groups and to investigate the relationships in the research model. The sample consisted of 324 preservice and 517 in-service teachers. Results revealed that attitude towards computer use was the most dominant predictor of behavioural intention in both preservice and in-service teachers. Subjective norms had a large total effect on behavioural intention in preservice teachers; however, the same effect was smaller in in-service teachers. Moreover, subjective norms played an important role in forming an attitude towards technology use in preservice teachers. On the other hand, in-service teachers considered the usefulness of technology in forming a positive attitude. We discussed the implications of the findings for both theory and practice. Practitioner Notes What is already known about the topic Technology acceptance model (TAM) is one of the most widely used models in technology acceptance and use. Acceptance and use of technology by preservice and in-service teachers are important for an effective integration process in educational settings. Social factors such as subjective norms impact technology acceptance and use behaviours of individuals. What this paper adds An extended TAM helps explain the technology acceptance and use behaviours of preservice and in-service teachers. Attitude towards computer use is a good predictor of both preservice and in-service teachers’ behavioural intention to use technology. Preservice and in-service teachers’ behavioural intention to use technology is affected by subjective norms. Subjective norms’ effect on forming an attitude towards computer use is greater in preservice teachers than it is in in-service teachers. Implications for practice and/or policy In teacher education programmes, instructors and administrators should require students to use technology in class activities and assignments and during internship practices to increase the possibility of students’ use of technology in their professional life. At schools, administrators and supervisors should mandate teachers to use technology that is easy to use in their classes, but they should also show teachers how technology can benefit their instructional practices. Instructional designers and IT developers should consider the affordances offered by ICT and provide teachers with quality, effective and easily administered user manuals or job aids.

Question 26

McKinlay et al. (2001)

Answer 26

Technology acceptance model (TAM) is one of the models that is used to explain the acceptance and use of technology with user perceptions and attitudes. Some researchers argued that TAM should include external variables, such as subjective norms, to improve our understanding of the effect of social impact on technology acceptance. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of subjective norms on preservice and in-service teachers’ perceptions, attitudes and behavioural intention to use technology in Turkey. We adopted a multigroup confirmatory factor analysis method to establish measurement invariance across the groups and to investigate the relationships in the research model. The sample consisted of 324 preservice and 517 in-service teachers. Results revealed that attitude towards computer use was the most dominant predictor of behavioural intention in both preservice and in-service teachers. Subjective norms had a large total effect on behavioural intention in preservice teachers; however, the same effect was smaller in in-service teachers. Moreover, subjective norms played an important role in forming an attitude towards technology use in preservice teachers. On the other hand, in-service teachers considered the usefulness of technology in forming a positive attitude. We discussed the implications of the findings for both theory and practice. Practitioner Notes What is already known about the topic Technology acceptance model (TAM) is one of the most widely used models in technology acceptance and use. Acceptance and use of technology by preservice and in-service teachers are important for an effective integration process in educational settings. Social factors such as subjective norms impact technology acceptance and use behaviours of individuals. What this paper adds An extended TAM helps explain the technology acceptance and use behaviours of preservice and in-service teachers. Attitude towards computer use is a good predictor of both preservice and in-service teachers’ behavioural intention to use technology. Preservice and in-service teachers’ behavioural intention to use technology is affected by subjective norms. Subjective norms’ effect on forming an attitude towards computer use is greater in preservice teachers than it is in in-service teachers. Implications for practice and/or policy In teacher education programmes, instructors and administrators should require students to use technology in class activities and assignments and during internship practices to increase the possibility of students’ use of technology in their professional life. At schools, administrators and supervisors should mandate teachers to use technology that is easy to use in their classes, but they should also show teachers how technology can benefit their instructional practices. Instructional designers and IT developers should consider the affordances offered by ICT and provide teachers with quality, effective and easily administered user manuals or job aids.

Question 27

Ybarra and Traffimow (1998)

Answer 27

Three experiments tested the hypothesis that the accessibility of the private self and the collective self affects the relative weights given to attitudes and subjective norms when forming a behavioral intention. The results of Experiment 1 indicate that increasing the accessibility of the private self caused participants to place more weight on attitudes than subjective norms but that increasing the accessibility of the collective self caused participants to place more weight on subjective norms than on attitudes. Experiments 2 and 3, using a subtle priming procedure, replicated this pattern of results. In addition, the findings of Experiment 3 provided direct evidence for the differential priming of the two self-concepts. Hence, the data suggest an intimate connection between the accessibility of the private and collective selves and whether people use attitudes or subjective norms to make behavioral intentions.

Question 28

Smith (1999)

Answer 28

This article examines the self-esteem that feminists, anti-feminists, and those who label themselves as mixed receive from their gender group. Feminists and anti-feminists were expected to have similarly high levels of gender collective self-esteem (CSE) on three of the four CSE subscales: Private, one’s judgments of the goodness of one’s group; Identity, the importance of one’s group to one’s self-concept; and Membership, personal evaluation of oneself as a group member. Similar levels on CSE subscales for feminists and anti-feminists were expected as a result of differing levels of adherance to traditional attitudes coward women. Anti-feminists were expected to have higher means than feminists on Public CSE, which measures judgment of how other’s evaluate one’s group. Participants were undergraduate women (91.4% white, 5.6% Black, 1.3% Hispanic, .4% Asian, .9% biracial) who self-labeled as feminist, anti-feminist or mixed. Feminists and anti-feminists did have similarly high levels of Membership CSE, higher than those who were more non-committal. Feminists were the highest in Identity CSE, while anti-feminists had the highest overall Public CSE. These findings are relevant to those who work with both feminists and those who reject feminism, as they suggest a need to recognize the amount of self-esteem women get from their gender.

collective self - more self esteem - less likely to care about what others think - attitudes more likely to affect BI

Question 29

Orbell et al. (1997)

Answer 29

This study concerns the implications of Peter Gollwitzer’s concept of implementation intentions for Icek Ajzen’s theory of planned behavior. Attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, and intentions were assessed before an intervention that required subjects to make implementation intentions concerning when and where they would perform breast self-examination during the next month. Behavior was assessed by self-report 1 month later. Results supported Gollwitzer’s contention that goal intentions that have been supplemented by implementation intentions concerning where and when the behavior is to be performed are more likely to be enacted. Evidence suggested that implementation intentions were effective because they provided a mechanism that facilitated the retrieval of intentions in memory. Implementation intentions also reduced the capacity of past behavior to predict future behavior, suggesting that implementation intentions mimic the effect of habit in human action. Implications for applications of models of attitude-behavior relations are outlined.

Question 30

Norman et al. (2019)

Answer 30

Main Outcome Measures: Cognitions about binge drinking were assessed immediately post-intervention. Frequency of binge drinking was assessed at one-month follow-up (n = 205).

Results: Participants who viewed the messages had significantly weaker intentions to engage in binge drinking and less favourable cognitions about binge drinking (affective attitude, descriptive norms, and self-efficacy) than those who did not view the messages. In addition, participants who formed an implementation intention to avoid binge drinking reported significantly fewer instances of binge drinking at follow-up.

Conclusion: The findings provide some support for the use of interventions based on the TPB to reduce intentions to engage in binge drinking and for forming implementation intentions to reduce the frequency of binge drinking in new university students. No evidence was found for the synergistic effect of combining the two interventions.

Question 31

Robinson et al. (2017)

Answer 31

implementation intention group v control to enhance exercise behaviours

II group had increased exercise behaviours compared to the control

Question 32

Haggar et al. (2015)

Answer 32

The current article details a position statement and recommendations for future research and practice on planning and implementation intentions in health contexts endorsed by the Synergy Expert Group. The group comprised world-leading researchers in health and social psychology and behavioural medicine who convened to discuss priority issues in planning interventions in health contexts and develop a set of recommendations for future research and practice. The expert group adopted a nominal groups approach and voting system to elicit and structure priority issues in planning interventions and implementation intentions research. Forty-two priority issues identified in initial discussions were further condensed to 18 key issues, including definitions of planning and implementation intentions and 17 priority research areas. Each issue was subjected to voting for consensus among group members and formed the basis of the position statement and recommendations. Specifically, the expert group endorsed statements and recommendations in the following areas: generic definition of planning and specific definition of implementation intentions, recommendations for better testing of mechanisms, guidance on testing the effects of moderators of planning interventions, recommendations on the social aspects of planning interventions, identification of the preconditions that moderate effectiveness of planning interventions and recommendations for research on how people use plans.

Question 33

Verplanken et al. (1998)

Answer 33

A field experiment investigated the prediction and change in repeated behaviour in the domain of travel mode choices. Car use during seven days was predicted from habit strength (measured by self‐reported frequency of past behaviour, as well as by a more covert measure based on personal scripts incorporating the behaviour), and antecedents of behaviour as conceptualized in the theory of planned behaviour (attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioural control and behavioural intention). Both habit measures predicted behaviour in addition to intention and perceived control. Significant habit × intention interactions indicated that intentions were only significantly related to behaviour when habit was weak, whereas no intention‐behaviour relation existed when habit was strong. During the seven‐day registration of behaviour, half of the respondents were asked to think about the circumstances under which the behaviour was executed. Compared to control participants, the behaviour of experimental participants was more strongly related to their previously expressed intentions. However, the habit‐behaviour relation was unaffected. The results demonstrate that, although external incentives may increase the enactment of intentions, habits set boundary conditions for the applicability of the theory of planned behaviour

Question 34

Sheeran and Conner (2019)

Answer 34

Background: Research is needed to understand factors that attenuate the association between habits and health behavior performance. Purpose. We tested whether degree of reasoned action moderates both intention-behavior and habit-behavior relations. Degree of reasoned action was defined by how well cognitions predict behavioral intentions, and was measured by the respective
within-participants multiple correlation (R). Methods: Four studies were undertaken. Two pilot studies established the validity of our measure of degree of reasoned action. Studies 1 (N = 663) and 2 (N = 1,014) were prospective surveys of 8 and 6 health behaviors, respectively. Intentions were measured via standard scales and habits were indexed by measures of frequency of performance ×
context stability. Results: In both studies, habits attenuated the predictive validity of intention. However, well reasoned intentions better predicted health behaviors than poorly reasoned intentions, and habits offered weaker prediction of behavior when intentions were well reasoned. Three-way degree of reasoned action × intention × habit interactions were also observed. Habits best predicted health behaviors when intentions were weak and poorly reasoned (Study 1), or offered poorest prediction of health behaviors when intentions were both strong and well reasoned (Study 2). Conclusions: Degree of reasoned action predicts increased intentional control and reduced habitual control over multiple health behaviors

Question 35

Fazio (1990)

Answer 35

The chapter presents the two very different basic processes that link attitudes and behavior, along with variants that amount to a mixture of the essentials of each process. Conditions that promote one process or the other also are discussed in the chapter. This discussion of mixed models illustrates the complexity of the role of spontaneous and deliberative processing to understand the manner in which attitudes influence behavior. The basic difference between the two types of models of the attitude-behavior process centers on the extent to which deciding on a particular course of action involves conscious deliberation about a spontaneous reaction to one’s perception of the immediate situation. An individual may analyze the costs and benefits of a particular behavior and, in so doing, deliberately reflect on the attitudes relevant to the behavioral decision. These attitudes may serve as one of possibly many dimensions that are considered in arriving at a behavior plan, which may then be enacted.

Question 36

Gok and Kabasakal (2019)

Answer 36

This study aims to analyse prospective teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs, teaching motivation, and attitudes towards teaching from the aspect of a number of variables. The research data were collected through “Teachers’ Sense of Self-efficacy Scale”, “Motivation to Teach Scale”, “Attitude Scale of Teaching Profession”. The study group was composed of 543 undergraduate students and taking teaching formation courses. Consequently, it was found that the prospective teachers who had chosen the department of study or graduation voluntarily had higher self-efficacy, motivation and attitudes than those who had not chosen the department voluntarily. The difference was found significant for both independent variables, but the interaction effect of the independent variables was not found significant for the dependent variables considered in this study. In addition to that, on examining the correlations between variables, it was found that the highest correlation was between intrinsic motivation and attitudes whereas the lowest correlation was between self-efficacy and motivation. The regression analysis performed indicated that attitudes had significant effects on self-efficacy and motivation. The findings suggested that such factors as attitudes, self-efficacy, and motivation should be taken into consideration in teacher training, and that other variables thought to have significant effects on teaching profession should also be analysed in studies to be conducted in the future.