approaches in psychology Flashcards
who is William Wundt
opened the first psychology lab in Germany in 1879 and psychology emerges as a distinct discipline
what did Wundt do in psychology
his approach was to study the structure of the human mind by breaking down elements into basic elements hence known as structuralism
what is introspection
means to look into meaning pps were asked to reflect on their own cognitive processes and describe them we can’t observe introspection as it relies on non-observable responses
this produces subjective data as it differs person to person
what is the scientific method
Wundts new scientific approach based on the assumption behaviour is caused and that is can be predicted. to investigate this it had to be objective systematic and replicable
what is classical conditioning (behaviourists)
learning by association occurs when 2 stimuli are constantly paired together - an unconditioned stimulus (ucs) and a new neutral stimulus. the neutral stimulus eventually produces the same response first produced by the unconditioned stimulus alone
define unconditioned stimulus (ucs)
something which naturally causes a response
define unconditioned response (ucr)
natural reaction to a stimulus
define neutral response (nr)
stimulus that initially doesn’t cause target response
define conditioned stimulus (cs)
when NS causes the same response as the ucs on its own as its become paired
describe pavlovs research on classical conditioning
pavlov revealed dogs could be conditioned to salivate to sound of a bell if that sound was repeatedly presented the same time they were given food so gradually pavlovs dogs associated the sound of a bell (a stimulus) with the food (another stimulus) thus pavlov showed how a neutral stimulus (bell) can elicit a new learned response (conditioned response) through association
what is operant conditioning (behaviourist)
form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained through consequences, possible consequences include positive/negative reinforcement or punishment
define skinners research on operant conditioning
known as skinners box, rats could press levers or peck at discs to receive rewards, allowing Skinner to observe how reinforcement and punishment influenced behavior.
by pecking one leaver it would turn off electric current making it repeat the behaviour (NR) when the rat pressed the other leaver it would release food causing rat to press many time (PR)
what is positive reinforcement
receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is preformed
what is negative reinforcement
occurs when we avoid something unpleasant through our behaviour e.g wearing sunscreen to avoid burning
what is positive punishment
when a behaviour Is followed by an unpleasant consequence which wouldn’t of occurred without the behaviour therefor the behaviour is less likely to be repeated
what is negative punishment
behaviour followed by unpleasant consequence caused when something pleasant is taken away therefor behaviour less likely to be repeated
strengths of classical conditioning evaluation
scientific credibility - behaviourism was able to bring the language and methods of natural sciences as it focuses on measuring observable behaviour with highly controlled lab setting
objectivity and replication - behaviourism was influential in the development of psychology as a scientific discipline giving it greater creditability
what is a limitation of classical conditioning
classical conditioning is only appropriate fro some learning as different species face different challenges to survive SELGMAN (1970) proofed concept of preparedness explaining animals are prepared to associations that are significant to their survival e.g smell of meat to meat nearby
strength of operant conditioning
skinners reliance on the experimental method using controlled conditions allowed for accurate measurement of rats behaviour
disadvantage of operant conditioning research
over reliance on external rewards/punishment Operant conditioning often focuses heavily on external reinforcement (rewards) or punishment to shape behavior. This can lead to a situation where individuals may only engage in certain behaviors to receive a reward or avoid punishment, rather than because they are intrinsically motivated or believe the behavior is valuable.
what is bandora’s et al bobo doll study (1966) social learning theory
expt involving children who observed aggressive or non aggressive adult models and were then tested for imitating learning in absence of the model
findings of bandora’s bobo doll study (1966)
children who observed aggressive model reproduced a good deal of psychical and verbally aggressive behaviour resembling that of model
children who observed non aggressive model exhibited virtually no aggression towards the bobo doll
boys acted more aggressively than girls
what are the key concepts of the social learning theory
modelling, imitation, identification and vicarious reinforcement
what is meant by modelling (SLT)
in order for social learning to take place someone must carry out the attitude or behaviour to be learned
a live model could be a teacher someone we see a symbolic model could be someone in the media that provide examples of behaviour we can observe
what is imitation (SLT)
some of what a child learns is through imitation of attitudes and behaviours that are modelled by parents or significant others when a model is acquired whole patterns of behaviour can be rapidly acquired
what is identification (SLT)
refers to the extent to which an individual relates to a model and feels they are similar to the person similar enough they would likely experience the same outcome in a particular situation
what is vicarious reinforcement? (SLT)
bandora and Walters (1963) noted that children who observed a model rewarded for aggressive behaviour were much more likely to imitate that behaviour than a child who had observed a model punished for the same behaviour
what are the four meditational processes in learning identified by bandura?
attention, retention, reproduction and motivation
what is meant by attention?
for a behaviour to be imitated it must grab our attention we observe many behaviours on a daily basis most we won’t remember
what is meant by retention?
behaviour may noticed but not remembered which prevents imitation a memory of behaviour must be formed for it to be imitated
what is meant by reproduction?
we see many behaviours we would like to imitate but can’t as we as limited to our psychical ability
what is meant by motivation?
the rewards/punishments that follow the behaviour will be considered by the observer if the perceived rewards outweigh punishment then behaviour more likely to be imitated
what is a strength of the social learning theory?
useful applications - akers (1998) suggests the probability of someone engaging in animal behaviours increases when they are exposed to a model who commits animal behaviour if they identify with the models they develop the expectation of positive consequences for their own animal behaviour
disadvantage of the learning theory
problem of causality - siegal and mccormick (2006) suggest young people who possess deviant attitudes would seek out peers with similar attitudes as they are more fun to be with therefor the cause of deliquantcy might not be social learning but possession of those bad qualities prior to contact with other deviant peers
what is meant by internal mental processes (cognitive approach)
Internal mental processes refer to the cognitive functions that occur within the mind processes are not directly observable but are inferred from behaviours and outcomes examples include attention, reasoning and memory
what is meant by inference (cognitive approach)
means to work out what is happening to info in the brain by investigating the behaviour people show under experimental conditions
what is schema (cognitive approach)
internal mental representations of our world. described as packages of ideas and info developed through experience they act as a mental framework for the interpretation of incoming info received by the cognitive system e.g schema of a chair we know it has 4 legs and should be sat on the package of info learned from experience allows us to respond appropriately
what is meant by theoretical models of cognitive process (cognitive approach)
Theoretical models of cognitive processes are frameworks that attempt to explain how the mind works by describing the mental processes involved in tasks such as perception, memory, learning, reasoning, and decision-making. These models offer structured ways to understand the internal workings of the mind and how various cognitive functions are interconnected. e.g multi store model
what is meant by computer models of cognitive processes
computer models are used to explain how the mind processes info. it states the human mind works in a similar way to the way computers process info as we both input, encode and store info then output info (behavioural response)
what is the emergence of cognitive neuroscience
the scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes
dr Broca’s work on the emergence of cognitive neuroscience
dr Broca carried out a case study which identified how damage to part of the frontal lobe could damage speech (mental process)
what is a strength of the cognitive approach
cognitive approach is scientific - cognitive psychologists emphasis on scientific methods is a particular strength as it gives researchers a rigorous method for collecting and evaluating evidence in order to reach accurate conclusions meaning there conclusions are based on way more than common sense and introspection
what is a disadvantage of the cognitive approach
ignores emotion and motivation - this is not surprising given the approaches that focus on motivational processes in behaviour largely ignore the cognitive processes the lack of focus on motivational states may be explained by the over dependance on info processing analogies e.g computer models
what is a genotype (biological approach)
individuals actual genetic make-up which occurs at conception providing the genetic code for how individual will develop dictating characteristics like eye colour
what is a phenotype (biological approach)
product of what happens when the genotype interacts with the environment e.g genotype dictates the max height of a person but environmental factors such as nutrition will affect how likely it is for person to reach this
how has evolution affected our behaviour (biological approach)
certain human characteristics exist because they are adaptive (aid survival) e.g aggression can be seen as an adaptive behaviour as once it was advantageous for our survival
how do biological structures influence behaviour (CNS)
the nervous system carries messages from one part of the body to another using individual nerve cells known as neurons, neurons transmit nerve impulses in the form of electrical signals many aspects of behaviour are under neuronal control e.g breathing
how does neurochemistry influence behaviour (chemicals)
neurochemistry is the biochemistry of the CNS, hormones are the chemicals which travel though the blood. neurotransmitters (chemicals which travel through brain) are seen to affect behaviour e.g high levels of a neurotransmitter called dopamine affect how we feel
advantage of biological approach (scientific methods)
adopts scientific methods for investigation using measures which are objective (not subject to opinion) such as brain scanning therefor its possible to accurately measure biological processes in a way not open to bias
disadvantage of biological approach (deterministic)
biological approach is deterministic in the sense it sees human behaviour as governed by internal biological causes over which we have no control. disadvantage as it says we are governed by our genetics and have no control over behaviour which is untrue
what are the 3 core assumptions of the psychodynamic approach
unconscious mind - believes the driving force behind our behaviour is the unconscious mind
instincts/drives - argues that it is instincts that motivate our behaviour
early childhood experiences - early childhood Is believed to be pivotal in making us the person we are
what is the role of the unconscious (psychodynamic approach)
In this approach, the unconscious mind is considered a powerful force influencing human behavior, thoughts, and emotions, often without conscious awareness. this could lead to distress with us not knowing why e.g shameful experiences
what are the 3 elements to the structure of our personality (psychodynamic approach)
the ID, ego and superego
what is the ID?
pleasure principle - basic drives such as hunger, aggression and sex
what is a negative of a dominant ID
The id does not have a sense of morality or logic, only with satisfying its needs. It operates without regard for rules, laws, or social norms.
what is the ego
when an individual is in good mental health the ego successfully balances the needs of the ID and superego
what are negative consequences of a weak ego
When the ego is weak, the id may dominate, driving the person to act on impulses without considering the consequences. This could lead to reckless behavior, such as acting out in anger
what is the superego
our morality or conscience
negative consequences of a dominant superego
he superego enforces high standards of behavior, often leading to perfectionism. A person with a dominant superego may set unrealistically high expectations for themselves
what are ego defence mechanisms
tactics for reducing feelings of anxiety
what is repression
unconscious process of blocking or burying distressing thoughts, feelings, memories, or desires that are too painful, threatening, or unacceptable to be consciously experienced. These repressed thoughts or emotions are pushed out of conscious awareness to protect the individual from anxiety or emotional pain.
what is denial
refusing to accept reality or rejecting the truth about a situation, event, or feeling because it is too painful, uncomfortable, or threatening to acknowledge
what is displacement
occurs when an individual experiences strong emotions (such as anger, fear, or frustration) but is unable or unwilling to express them directly toward the source of those feelings. Instead, the person redirects those emotions toward a less threatening target
what are the 5 psychosexual stages (psychodynamic approach)
old age pensioners love Guinness
oral 0-2yrs
anal 2-3yrs
phallic 3-6yrs
latent 6-12yrs
genital 12+
describe the oral stage
mouth is the main focus of pleasure during this stage mothers breasts are desired as child enjoys sucking successful completion is through independently eating
consequence of unsolved conflict of oral stage
oral receptive (not allowed to suck freely) becomes passive, bites nails
oral aggressive (allowed to suck too much) becomes hostile and verbally abusive
describe the anal stage
defacation main source of pleasure successful completion through potty training
consequence of unresolved conflict of anal stage
anally retentive - very tidy, perfectionist
anally expulsive - disorganised, messy doesn’t like to follow rules
describe the Oedipus complex (phallic stage)
boy wants his mother as primary love object
wants father out the way but fears his father knows this and will punish or casterate him
describe the Electra complex (phallic stage)
girl also desires her mother
realises she doesn’t have penis like her father so becomes hostile towards mother as she believes she casterated her
eventually resolves feelings
(phallic personality could be reckless or homosexual)
describe the latent stage
sexual urges sublimed into other hobbies
focus on social rather than psychosexual development
describe the genital stage
puberty into adulthood
focus on genitals but not same extent as phallic stage
directs adolescents towards sexual intercourse and developing healthy relationships
possible conflict if genital stage isn’t completed
difficulty forming relationships
what is an advantage of the psychodynamic approach
scientific support - many of the psychodynamic analysis have been tested and many have been confirmed using scientific methodology
fisher and Greenberg (1996) summarised 2500 of these studies and they support for the existence of unconscious motivation in human behaviour which adds scientific credibility to psychodynamic approach
what is a disadvantage of the psychodynamic approach
freud’s view of woman and female sexuality were less developed than male views. despite his theories being based on sexual development freud seemed content to remain ignorant of female sexuality this is problematic as he treated many female patients and his approach is influential today
what are the assumptions of the humanistic approach
(unique, free will, holism and scientific method)
every individual is unique - we are all different and there is no point in trying to generalise to groups as there are so many differences
free will - we all have the ability to choose what we do and are in control of our behaviour
holism - pointless to look at only one aspect of an individual as we may miss what’s affecting someone
scientific method is not a good way to measure behaviour - argues the scientific approach tries to be too objective when humans are subjective in how they behave
what is maslows hierarchy of needs
Maslow believes humans are motivated by needs beyond those of basic biological survival
fundamental to human nature is the desire to grow and develop to achieve our full potential (self actualisation)
what are the 5 needs in maslows hierarchy
physiological (food, water)
safety (employment, health)
love (friendship, intimacy)
esteem (confidence, respect)
self-actualisation (morality, creativity)
what the the 3 selves according to carl rogers
self concept - the self you feel you are
ideal self - the self you wish to be who u aim to become
the real self - person you actually are
what is congruence (humanistic approach)
a healthy sense of well-being is established if an individual maintains a reasonable consistency between ideal self and actual behaviour (self image similar to ideal self)
what is incongruence (humanistic approach)
the greater the gap between the ideal self and the actual self the greater the incongruence
describe the influence on counselling psychology
humanistic approach primary application has been to therapeutic treatment, client encouraged to develop positive self regard overcoming the mismatch between their perceived self, true self and ideal self
advantage of the humanistic approach
By emphasizing growth, self-actualization, and the pursuit of personal potential, the humanistic approach provides a positive framework for personal development. It encourages individuals to strive for better mental well-being and a more fulfilling life.
disadvantage of the humanistic approach
the humanistic approach was developed in a Western context and emphasizes individual autonomy and self-actualization, which may not align with the values of all cultures. In collectivist cultures, where group harmony and community are prioritized over individual success, the humanistic approach may not be as applicable or effective.
is the biological approach deterministic or free will
deterministic - behaviour is controlled by internal biological factors
is the behaviourist approach free will or deterministic
deterministic - behaviour is controlled by stimulus response conditioning
is the social learning approach deterministic or free will
soft deterministic - behaviour controlled by environmental forces however humans have personal responsibility
is the cognitive approach free will or deterministic
deterministic - behaviour is controlled by meditational processes however humans choose what info they attend to
is the psychodynamic approach free will or deterministic
deterministic - behaviour controlled by unconscious drives and early childhood experiences
is the humanistic approach free will or deterministic
free will - humans control their own environment and are capable of change
is the biological approach nature or nurture
nature - behaviour is result of innate biological factors e.g genes
is the behaviourist approach naturally or nurture
nurture - humans are born with a blank slate and behaviour is learned
is the social learning approach nature or nurture
nurture - behaviour is learned from observation
is the cognitive approach nature or nurture
nature and nurture - behaviour is the product of information processing and modified by experiences
is the psychodynamic approach nature or nurture
mostly nature - behaviour is the product of innate drives but shaped by early childhood experiences
is the humanistic approach nature or nurture
mostly nature - behaviour is shaped by the environment as humans drive to achieve self actualisation
is the biological approach scientific
scientific - biological approach promotes scientific methods e.g brain scanning
is the behaviourist approach scientific
scientific - behaviourist approach utilities scientific methods of investigation e.g lab expts
is the social learning approach scientific
mostly scientific - uses scientific methods of investigation however researchers are unable to observe cognitive processes
is the cognitive approach scientific
mostly scientific - uses scientific methods of investigation however researchers unable to directly observe cognitive processes
is the psychodynamic approach scientific
not scientific - examines many concepts which can’t be empirically tested so relies on subjective interpretation
is the humanistic approach scientific
not scientific - rejects scientific methods and is therefor unable to provide empirical evidence
