Anatomy & Physiology Flashcards
What is the definition of “anatomy?
the study of the structures of the body
What is the definition of “physiology”?
the study of how the body functions
The body is arranged in __
a hierarchy
The hierarchy ranges from __
the most simple to the most complex
How is the hierarchy of the body arranged?
atoms > molecules > organelles > cells > tissues > organs > organ systems > human (AMOCTOOH)
What is the smallest /living/ unit that make up the body’s structure?
cells
Organelles are metabolic units within __ but are not living units on their own
cells
How many organs does the body consist of?
11
True or False:
Some organs belong to more than one system
True
The “Integumentary System” consists of __
hair, skin, & nails
The “Skeletal System” consists of __
bones, cartilage, & ligaments
The “Muscular System” consists of __
skeletal muscles
The “Lymphatic System” consists of __
lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels, lymph, thymus, spleen, & tonsils
The “Respiratory System” consists of __
nose, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, & lungs
The “Urinary System” consists of __
kidneys, uterus, urinary bladder, & urethra
The “Nervous System” consists of __
brain, spinal cord, & sense organs
The “Endocrine System” consists of __
pituitary gland, arenas, pancreas, thyroid, & parathyroids, etc.
The “Circulatory System” consists of __
heart, arteries, veins, & capillaries
The “Digestive System” consists of __
stomach, small & large intestines, esophagus, liver, mouth, & pancreas
The “Male Reproductive System” consists of __
testes, vas deferens, prostate, seminal vesicles, & penis
The “Female Reproductive System” consists of __
ovaries, Fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, & breasts
What is the mid sagittal line?
a line that separates the body from left to right, marked by the navel
What is a sagittal line?
a line away from the midline, & splits into unequal parts. Ex: an arm
Medial
is towards the body’s midline
Lateral
goes away from the body’s midline
Distal
farthest from the point of origin (attachment)
Proximal
closest to the point of origin (attachment)
Superior
above
Inferior
below
Anterior (Ventral)
front
Posterior (Dorsal)
Back
Superficial
at the surface
Deep
away from the body’s surface
Sagittal Plane
AKA mid sagittal plane if made exactly in the midline; divides lengthwise, into right/left sides; used to reveal the organs in the cranial or pelvic cavity
Traverse Plane
AKA horizontal plane; divides horizontally from superior/inferior portions; used for CT scans to reveal internal organs
Frontal Plane
AKA coronal plane; divides lengthwise into anterior/posterior portions; to show the contents of the abdominal & thoracic cavities
“Ventral Cavity” consists of __
thoracic & abdominopelvic cavity
“Thoracic Cavity” consists of __
mediastinum & pleural
“Abdominopelvic Cavity” consists of __
abdominal & pelvic cavities
“Dorsal Cavity” consists of __
spinal cavity & cranial cavity
Which cavity is the diaphragm located? Dorsal or Ventral?
neither
What surrounds the thoracic cavity? How is it divided?
ribs & chest muscles; subdivided by two pleural cavities (each containing a lung) & the mediastinum
How is the abdominopelvic cavity divided? What does each cavity contain?
subdivided into the abdominal & pelvic cavities; the abdominal contains stomach, intestines, spleen, & livers, etc; the pelvic contains bladder, some reproductive organs, & rectum
Explain the Cranial Cavity
formed by the skull; contains the brain
Explain the Spinal Cavity
formed by vertebrae; contains the spinal cord
Locate the Right Hypochondriac
top right section of the abdominal region
Locate the Left Hypochondriac
the top left section of the abdominal region
Locate the Epigastric Region
top middle section of the abdominal region
Locate the Right Lumbar
below the Right Hypochondriac
Locate the Left Lumbar
below the Left Hypochondriac
Locate the Umbilical
the mid section between the Right/Left Lumbar
Locate the Right Iliac
bottom right section of the pelvic region
Locate the Left Iliac
the bottom left section of the pelvic region
Locate the Hypogastic
the bottom section of the mid pelvic region
Homeostasis
the state of dynamic equilibrium of the internal environment of the body
The body operates within a narrow range of __; the range of normal is called the __
temperature, fluids, & chemicals; set point
Receptor
detects change
Control Center
area of the body that receives & processes info from the receptor
Effector
sends signals that either oppose or enhance the stimulus
Negative Feedback
when the effector opposes the stimulus & reverses the direction of change Ex: being cold
Positive Feedback
when the effector reinforces the stimulus & amplifies the direction of change Ex: child birth
Cephalic
head
Frontal
forehead
Orbital
eyes
Nasal
nose
Buccal
cheeks
Oral
mouth
Cervical
neck
Atoms link together to form __
molecules
Molecules are organized into various structures including __
organelles
Organelles are the __
the metabolic units within a cell that perform a specific function necessary to the life of the cell
Examples of Organelles
Mitochondria — the powerhouses that furnish the cells’ energy — & the cell’s nucleus
Organelles are contained within __
cells
Cells are the __ living units that make up the body’s structure
smallest
Cells group together to form __
tissues
Tissues come together to form __
organs
Organs are structures of __ or more tissue types working together to carry out a particular function; examples of organs
two; heart, stomach, & kidney
Organs form __
organ systems
Organ Systems all together form __
a human organism
Epithelial Tissue
covers or lines body surfaces; ex: outer layer of the skin, walls of capillaries, & kidney tubules
Connective Tissue
connects & supports parts of the body; some transports & stores materials; ex: bone, cartilage, & adipose tissues
Muscle
contracts to produce movement; ex: skeletal muscles & the heart
Nerve Tissue
generates & transmits impulses to regulate body function; ex: brain & nerves
Which organ system works in isolation?
None; the systems work together, orchestrating their actions to keep the body functioning
All terms are based on the body being in __ position
anatomical
In Homeostasis, how does the Nervous System contribute to helping the body generate heat?
the hypothalamus in the brain contains the body’s thermostat
In Homeostasis, how does the Cardiovascular System contribute to helping the body generate heat?
blood vessels constrict to conserve heat
In Homeostasis, how does the Muscular System contribute to helping the body generate heat?
the muscles contract to cause shivering
In Homeostasis, how does the Integumentary System contribute to helping the body generate heat?
sweat production stops & “goose bumps” form, which creates an insulating layer
In Homeostasis, how does the Endocrine System contribute to helping the body generate heat?
thyroid hormone production increases metabolism, which raises body temperature
In Homeostasis, how does the Digestive System contribute to helping the body generate heat?
the metabolism of food & stored fat generates heat
The body’s internal temperature should remain between __
97 - 99
Most systems supporting homeostasis operate by __
negative feedback
Pathophysiology
functional changes resulting from disease
The term patellar is used to identify the __
knee
The study of the structure of the body
anatomy
Specialized groups of cells with similar structure & function are __
tissues
The term use to describe something toward the body’s midline is __
medial
Which organ system functions to destroy pathogens that enter the body?
immune system
What is the name of the major body cavity encompassing the front portion of the body?
ventral
What is the term used to describe the abdominal region just under the breastbone?
hypochondriac
What type of tissue covers or lines body surfaces?
epithelial
Cells are the __ units of all living matter
simplest
cells vary in __ & __, & all cells are __
size; shape; microscopic
True or False: a cell’s function dictates its form
true
Types of cells (5)
nerve, muscle, red blood cells, gland, & immune
Nerve Cells
long extensions allow these cells to quickly transmit electrical impulses from one part of the body to another
Muscle Cells
Elongated, thread-like fibers can shorten to allow body parts to move
Red Blood Cells
Concave shape allows these cells to bend & squeeze through tiny blood vessels
Gland Cells
Intracellular sacs store & release substances, such as hormones, enzymes, mucus, & sweat
Immune Cells
can recognize & destroy foreign invaders such as viruses, fungi, & bacteria either directly, or manufacturing antibodies
Plasma Membrane
surrounding the cell; contains phospholipids, cholesterol, & protein; selective permeability
Golgi Apparatus
Delivery man; receives proteins from the ER, prepares & packages those proteins to export to other parts of the body
Centrioles
microtubules responsible for cell division
Mitochondrion
powerhouse of the cell that have cristae folds that contain enzymes that the organelle uses to convert organic compounds into ATP, which cells use for energy
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
has no ribosomes; contains enzymes that synthesize certain lipids & carbohydrates
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
a network of membranous canals & curving sacs, with ribosomes that dot the surface; the ribosomes synthesize proteins, which move through the network of canals toward the GA
Ribosomes
serve to synthesize protein
Lysosomes
cellular garbage disposal, cleans out the cell through enzymes to break down protein the cell doesn’t need
Cytoplasm
gel-like substance that fills the space between the plasma membrane & the nucleus containing organelles
Nucleus
the cell’s control center because it contains all of a cell’s genetic information
Nuclear Envelope
a double layered membrane that surrounds the nucleus
Nucleolus
in the center of the nucleus, manufactures components of ribosomes
Microvilli
folds of the cell that do not move & greatly increase the surface area of the cell
Cilia
hair-like processes along the surface of a cell that move
Flagella/Flagellum
hair-like projections with a whip-like tail that helps move a cell
Active Transport
requires energy in the form of ATP
Endocytosis
form of vesicular transport that brings substances into the cell
Exocytosis
form of vesicular transport that releases substances outside the cell
Phagocytosis
process in which large particles are trapped in the plasma membrane & brought into the cell
Pinocytosis
process in which fluid & dissolved particles are trapped in the plasma membrane & brought into the cell
Cells can be categorized as belonging to one of four distinct groups of tissue
epithelial, connective, nervous, & muscular
Epithelial Tissue
continuous sheet of tightly packed cells that provide protection, absorption, filtration, & secretion; its bottom surface adheres to underlying connective tissue by means of a basement membrane
Cells shapes of epithelial tissue
squamous, cuboidal, columnar
Squamous Cells
flat, plate-like, scaly
Cuboidal Cells
cube shaped
Columnar Cells
tall & cylindrical
Simple Epithilia
cells touches the basement membrane
Stratified Epithelia
stack on top of each other & upper layers do not touch the basement membrane
Exocrine Glands
secrete their products into the ducts; ducts empty onto a body surface or inside a body cavity
Endocrine Glands
ductless glands; secrete their products called hormones directly into the blood
Goblet Cells
modified cells containing secretory vesicles that produce large quantities of mucus
Connective Tissue
the most widespread & the most varied tissue
Dense Fibrous
Ligaments
Cartilage
vertebral discs
Areolar
loose connective tissue that lies under the epithelia; consists of collagen & elastin fibers; surrounds blood vessels, nerves, esophagus, & trachea
Adipose
fat; forms protective pads around structures; acts as a storage depot for excess food; helps insulate the body
Cartilage
composed of chondrocytes, has a rubber, flexible matrix; contains no blood vessels; heals very slowly or not at all
Hyaline Cartilage
most common of cartilage; found at the ends of movable joints
Elastic Cartilage
flexible support to the external ear & the epiglottis
Fibrocartilage
strongest of cartilage; forms discs between the vertebrae & in the knee because it resists compression & absorbs shock
Osseous Tissue
composed of osteocytes; embedded in a metrics of collagen fibers & mineral salt crystals responsible for the hardness of bone
Some bones contain __, which produces new blood cells
red bone marrow
True or False: Bone does not have a rich blood supply
false; bones do have a rich blood supply allowing for the bones to heal quickly after a fracture
Blood Tissue
exists as a fluid; surrounded by a liquid matrix known as plasma; doesn’t contain any fibers; transports cells & dissolved substances from one part of the body to another
Nervous Tissue
found in the brain; spinal cord; & nerves; consists of neurons & neuroglia
Neurons
conduct nervous impulses
Neuroglia
assist & protect neurons
Soma
contains the nucleus of the nerve cell as well as the organelles
Dendrites
receive impulses from other cells which they transmit to the soma
Axon
transmits signals to other cells
Skeletal Muscle Tissue
striated & voluntary muscle
Cardiac Muscle Tissue
striated & involuntary muscle
Smooth Muscle Tissue
non-striated & involuntary muscle
Membranes
thin sheets of tissue; mucous, cutaneous, & serous
Mucous
line body surfaces that open directly to the body’s exterior; secrete mucus that coats & protects the cells of the membrane, acting as a lubricant
Cutaneous
known as the skin, body’s largest membrane
Serous
composed of simple squamous epithelium resting on a thin layer of areolar connective tissue, lines some of the closed body cavities & many organs within those cavities; parietal & visceral; secrete serous fluid to help prevent friction as the organs move
Parietal Membrane
part of the membrane lines the wall of the cavity
Visceral Membrane
the part of the membrane that covers the organs
Pleura
surrounds each lung
Pericardium
surrounds the heart
Peritoneum
covers the abdominal organs
Integumentary System
self-regenerating tissue also separates the internal from the external environment, protects the body from invasion by harmful substance, & helps maintain homeostasis
Cutaneous Membrane consists of
the epidermis & the dermis
Epidermis
outermost layer; contains no blood vessels; obtains oxygen & nutrients by diffusion from the dermal layer beneath it
Dermis
inner, deeper layer; composed of connective tissue; contains primarily collagen fibers & elastin fibers; abundance of blood vessels, hair follicles, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, & nerve endings
Hypodermis
layer of subcutaneous tissue; made of areolar & adipose tissue; helps insulate the body & acts as an energy reservoir
During the course of life, the cells of the out layer of the epidermis are __
sloughed off, continually renewing itself
True or False: New cells are created in the lowest level of the epidermis
true
cells in the lowest layer of the epidermis continually undergo __
mitosis – producing new cells
Keratin
a tough, fibrous protein that replaces cytoplasm & nucleus in each cell
Melanocytes
scattered throughout the basal layer; produce melanin
Two types of melanin
pheomelanin (reddish) & eumelanin (brown-black)
True or False: a person’s skin color is determined by the amount & type of melanin – not the number of melanocytes
true
What happens when UV radiation reaches the nucleus of the cell?
damages the cell’s DNA & can lead to cancer
Cyanosis
blue tint; deficiency of oxygen in circulating blood
Jaundice
yellow discoloration of the skin & whites of the eyes; impaired liver function that allows bile to accumulate, which stains the skin
Bronzing
a golden brown skin color; deficiency of hormones from the adrenal gland, such as occurs with Addison disease
Albinism
extremely pale skin, white hair, & pink eyes; a genetic lack of melanin
Erythema
abnormal redness; increased blood flow in dilated blood vessels close to the skin’s surface; may result from heat, exercise, sunburn, or emotions such as embarrassment or anger
Pallor
pale skin; decreased blood flow, such as occurs from cold temperatures, fear or emotional stress, low blood pressure, or blood loss
Hematoma
bruise; bluish, black, or yellowish mark on the skin; breakdown of clotted blood under the skin
The skin performs what variety of functions that are crucial to human survival?
protection; barrier; vitamin D production; sensory perception; thermoregulation
Although skin acts as a barrier it can still __
absorb many chemicals making the skin a possible route for medication administration or may absorb toxic chemicals as well such as metals, nail polish removers, pesticides, etc that can cause cancer or damage to organs
Axillary
armpit
Brachial
arm
Antecubital
front of elbow
Sternal
sternum
Pectoral
chest
Mammary
breast
Abdominal
abdomen
Hair occurs everywhere except
lips, nipples, palms/soles, & some parts of the genitals
True or False: hair follicles do not have a rich nerve & blood supply
false; hair follicles do have a rich nerve & blood supply
Arrector Pili Muscle
a small bundle of smooth muscle attached to each hair follicle; contracts when cold or scared, causing hair to stand up right, or goosebumps
Alopecia
excessive hair loss due to age, disease, poor nutrition, chemotherapy, or emotional distress
Male Pattern Baldness
occurs only in individuals who have inherited a specific gene & have high levels of testosterone
Long-term oxygen deficiency, usually as a result of lung disease. Causes the distal ends of the finger to enlarge, the nail bed softens, & causes the nail to angle downward
clubbing
Often is the first sing of oxygen deficiency
cyanosis
Flattened or concave nail beds
may indicate an iron deficiency
Dark lines beneath the nail
may indicate melanoma in lighter-skinned individuals, although such lines may be normal in individuals with dark skin
White nails
may occur in liver diseases such as hepatitis
Yellowish, thickened, slow-growing nails
often occur in individuals with lung diseases such as emphysema
Pale nail beds
may be a sign of anemia
Eccrine Glands
contains a duct that leads from a secretory portion through the debris & epidermis, & onto the skin’s surface producing sweat
Sweat contains
potassium, ammonia, lactic acid, uric acid, & other wastes
Apocrine Glands
contain a duct that leads to a hair follicle; located mainly in the axillary & anogenital regions; begin to function at puberty
Sebaceous Glands
secrete an oily substance called sebum; helps keep the skin & hair from drying out & becoming brittle; mild antibacterial & antifungal effect
When excess sebum accumulates in the gland ducts __
pimples & blackheads can form; when exposed to oxygen, the sebum darkens forming a blackhead, which results into a pustule if the area becomes infected by bacteria
Ceruminous Glands
exist in the external ear canal, secrete a waxy substance called cerumen
Cerumen
ear wax; helps keep the ear canal from drying out; however, excess cerumen can accumulate & Harden, diminishing hearing
Partial-Thickness Burn: Superficial
first-degree burn; only on the epidermis; causes redness, slight swelling, & pain
Partial-Thickness Burn: Deep
second-degree burn; involves the epidermis as well as part of the dermis; results in blisters, sever pain, & swelling; may result in scaring; appear red, white or tan
Full-Thickness Burn
third-degree burn; extends through the epidermis & dermis into the subQ layers; may not initially be painful due to destruction of nerve endings; appear white or black & leathery; often requires skin grafts
Rule of Nines
estimating the percentage of body surface area (BSA) affected; divides the body in areas of 9%
Most common type of skin cancer that seldom metastasizes making it the least dangerous; typically on the nose or face appearing as a small, shiny bump; as it enlarges, developed a central depression & a beaded, “pearly” edge
Basal Cell Carcinoma
Cancer that arises in the epidermis & slow growing; often occurs on the scalp, forehead, backs of the hands, & top of the ears; raised, red, scaly appearance; some forms may metastasize
Squamous Cell Carcinoma
Most deadly of all skin cancers; develops from melanocytes; metastasizes quickly
Malignant Melanoma
Inflammation of the sebaceous glands
acne
Inflammation of the skin characterized by itching & redness
dermatitis
Itchy, red rash caused by an allergy; lesions initially weep or ooze serum & may become crusted, thickened or scaly
Eczema
Contagious bacterial infection of the skin producing yellow to red weeping, crusted, or pustular lesions around the nose, mouth, cheeks or extremities
Impetigo
A recurring skin disorder characterized by red papule & scaly silvery plaques with sharply defined borders
psoriasis
Any fungal infection of the skin usually occurring in moist areas such as the groin, axilla, & foot
tinea
Allergic reaction resulting in multiple red patches (wheals) that are intensely itchy
Urticaria
How many bones are in the human body?
206
Bone consistently __ & _ itself
breaks down; rebuilds
Bone is filled with
blood vessels, nerves, & living cells
True or False: bone is as strong as steel & as light as aluminum
true
Long bones
very long axis & are longer than they are wide; ex: femur
Frontal bone
thin, flat, often curved bones that protect organs
Vertebra
clustered in groups, come in various sizes & shapes
Short bones
as broad as they are long, shaped like cubes
The tiniest bone is found in the
ear
Epiphysis
the head of each end of a long bone
Articular Cartilage
a thin layer of hyaline cartilage that covers the surface of the epiphysis; eases the movement of the bone within the join along with lubricating fluid between bones
Medullary Cavity
the central hollow portion of a bone that contains the bone marrow; most of the marrow has turned to yellow marrow for adults which is rich in fat
Endosteum
a thin epithelial membrane lining the inside of the medullary cavity
Periosteum
a dense fibrous membrane that covers the diaphysis
Diaphysis
central shaft-like portion of the bone that is thick, compact, & makes up the hollow cylinder, giving the bone the strength it needs to support a large amount of weight
Once growth stops, the epiphyseal plate is replaced by an __
epiphyseal line
Epiphyseal plate
growth plate; separates the epiphysis from the diaphysis at each end of a long bone
Inflammation of bone & marrow, usually the result of a bacterial infection
osteomyelitis
Osseous Tissue
bone; a type of connective tissue
Bone cells include
osteoblasts, osteoclasts, & osteocytes
Osteoblasts
help form bone by secreting substances that comprise the bone’s matrix
Osteoclasts
dissolve unwanted or unhealthy bone
Osteocytes
are mature osteoblasts that have become entrapped in the hardened bone matrix; some dissolve bone, whereas other deposit new bone
What factors affect bone growth & maintenance?
hereditary, nutrition, hormones, exercise
Spongy Bone
light & porous, spongy or cancellous found in the ends of long bone & in the middle of most other bones; always surrounded by more durable compact bone
Compact Bone
dense & solid, offers strength which is why it forms the shafts of long bones & the outer surfaces of other bones
Bone Marrow
type of soft tissue that fills the medullary cavity of long bones as well as the spaces of spongy bone; red & yellow
In adults, red bone marrow can be found only in the __
ribs, sternum, vertebrae, skull, pelvis, & upper parts of both the humerus & femur; the rest contain yellow marrow
Endochondral Ossification
cartilage begins turning into bone
Bone lengthening __; bone widening & thickening __
stops at a certain point; continue throughout the lifespan
Osteoporosis
porous bones; a condition which bones lose so much mass that they become extremely brittle; the most common bone disease
A break in a bone is called a __
fracture
True or False: broken bones can be manipulated into their original position without surgery?
true; its called closed reduction
Open Reduction
surgery is needed to reposition the bones, after which screws, pints, or plates may be used to stabilize the bones
Simple Fracture
the bone remains aligned & the surrounding tissue is intact
Compound Fracture
the bone pierces the skin
Greenstick Fracture
incomplete, similar to when a green stick breaks
Comminuted Fracture
the bone breaks into pieces
Spiral Fracture
fracture line spirals around the bone, result of twisting force
Antebrachial
forearm
Carpal
wrist
Palmar
palm
Digital
fingers
Femoral
thigh
Patellar
knee
Tarsal
ankle
Pedal
foot
Inguinal
groin
How many bones do newborn babies have before eventually fusing together?
300 or more
Out of 206, about how many bones comprise the upright, central supporting axis of the body? & how many make up the other remaining bones that make up?
80 which include the skull, rib cage, & vertebral column; 126 including the limbs, pelvic, & shoulder area
Differentiate the axial & appendicular skeletons
the axial skeleton relates to the body’s axis, a straight line around which a body revolves; the appendicular skeleton relates to the appendages of the body
How many bones does each foot contain?
26
Parietal Bones
join together at the top of the head to for the top & sides of the cranial cavity
Occipital Bone
forms the rear of the skull
Temporal Bones
form the sides of the cranium & part of the cranial floor
What structures does the temporal bones contain?
the external auditory meatus (opening of the ear); mastoid process (lump behind the ear); zygomatic arch (cheek bones)
Frontal Bone
forms the forehead & the roof of the eye sockets (orbits)
Sella Turcica
found at the top of the sphenoid, houses the pituitary gland
Cribriform Plate
forms part of the roof of the nasal cavity
The skull contains a number of holes called __ that allow for passage of nerves & blood
foramina
A large opening in the base of the skull is the __, & allows the spinal cord to pass through as it connects to the brainstem
foramen magnum
When the brain is injured, it __; however, the skull can’t expand to accommodate the swelling, the pressure inside the cranium __ as the brain pushes against the sides of the skull. If swelling becomes sever, the pressure will force the __ __, through the foramen magnum, resulting in __ & usually __
swells; increases; brainstem down; respiratory arrest & death
Maxillae
form the upper jaw; foundation of the face
Zygomatic Bones
shape the cheeks & form the outer edge of the orbit
Mandible
largest & strongest bone of the face; articulates with the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) making it the only facial bone that can move
Hyoid Bone
u-shaped that sits between the chine & the larynx; only bone that doesn’t articulate with any other bone; serves as an attachment point for muscles that control the tongue, mandible, & larynx
Upon autopsy, pathologists look for a fractured hyoid bone as a sign of __
strangulation
Four pairs of sinuses
sphenoid, frontal, ethmoid, & maxillary
Sinuses are fill with __, they lighten the skull & act as resonators for __
air; sound production
An infants skull contains __
fontanels
Fontanels
areas between the unfused bones, covered by fibrous membranes; soft to the touch & over time shrink & usually completely close by age 2yr
Suture lines in a newborn that are abnormally wide suggest __
hydrocephalus; a condition in which excessive amounts of cerebrospinal fluid accumulate in the brain causing the cranium to expand
A bulging anterior fontanel in a newborn signals __
increased intracranial pressure, such as may occur following a head injury or infection
A sunken fontanel in a newborn suggests __
dehydration
An infant’s skull attains half its adult size by age __ where as its final size is reached by age __
9m; 9yr
How many vertebrae does the cervical vertebrae contain?
7
How many vertebrae does the thoracic vertebrae contain?
12
How many vertebrae does the lumbar vertebrae contain?
5
How many vertebrae does the sacrum contain?
5 fused
How many vertebrae does the coccyx contain?
4 fused
A lateral curvature of the spine, most often in the thoracic region
scoliosis
Also known as “hunchback”, an exaggerated thoracic curvature resulted from poor posture & common in individuals with osteoporosis
kyphosis
Also known as a “swayback”, is an exaggerated lumbar curvature resulted from the possibility of poor posture, osteoporosis, or abdominal weight gain
lordosis
Vertebral Foramen
an opening that allows for passage of the spinal cord
The bumps you feel when you run your hand along the spine
spinous process
Extend from each side of the vertebra, & serves an attachment point with the spinous process for muscles & ligaments
transverse processes
In between each vertebra is a layer of cartilage called __
intervertebral disc
Intense pressure on the intervertebral discs can cause the annulus of the disc to crack, the nucleus pulpous can then ooze out from the center of the disc & press on the spinal cord or spinal nerve causing pain
herniated disc
To repair a herniated disc, a procedure where both laminae & the spinal processes are removed
laminectomy
The most unique of all the vertebrae are the first two cervical vertebrae, known as the __
C1 Atlas & C2 Axis
C1 Atlas moves the head __ such as when saying __
back & forth; yes
C2 Axis has a projection called the __, that projects the atlas & allows the head to __ such as saying __
dens; side to side; no
True or False: a hard blow to the top of the head can drive the dens through the foramen magnum & into the brainstem, resulting in sudden death
true
Three regions of the sternum
manubrium, body, xiphoid process
Manubrium
the broadest portion of the sternum
Body of the sternum
the longest portion, joins the manubrium at the sternal angle, also the location of the second rib
Xiphoid Process
important landmark for CPR, provides an attachment point for some abdominal muscles
Clavicle
collarbone; helps support the shoulder
Scapula
shoulder blade; lies over ribs 2-7
True Ribs
1-7, attach to the sternum by a strip of hyaline cartilage called costal cartilage
False Ribs
8-12; 8-10 attach to the cartilage of 7
Besides protecting the thoracic organs, the ribs also protect the __
spleen, liver, & portion of the kidneys
Humerus
the long bone of the upper arm
Ulna
other long bone of the lower arm, longer than the radius, same side as the pinkie
Radius
long bone in the lower arm, same side as the thumb
Phalanges
bones that form the fingers
Metacarpal Bones
5 bones that form the palm of the hand
Carpal Bones
8 bones arranged in 2 rows of 4, form the wrist
Ilium (pelvic bone)
a large, flaring section you can feel under the skin
Ischium (pelvic bone)
the lower posterior portion
Pubis (pelvic bone)
most anterior portion that joins with the other pubis at the symphysis pubis
Symphysis Pubis (pelvic bone)
a disc of cartilage that separates the two pubic bones
Os Coxae/Coxal Bone
each of the two large bones of the hip
Longest & strongest bone in the body
femur
Triangular sesamoid bone embedded in the tendon of the knee
patella
Long & slender bone residing alongside the tibia & helps stabilize the ankle
fibula
Of the two bones the lower leg, this bone is the only one that bears weight
tibia
The bones that form the middle portion of the foot
metatarsals
The bones that comprise the ankle
tarsal bones
The largest tarsal bone that forms the heel, & bears much of the body’s weight
calcaneus
Synarthrosis
Fibrous joints result when collagen fibers from one bone penetrate the adjacent bone, anchoring the bones in place
Amphiarthrosis
Cartilaginous joints, two bones joined by cartilage; slightly movable
The branch of science that studies joint structure, function, & dysfunction
Arthrology
Diarthroses
Synovial joints are freely movable; the most numerous & versatileof all the body’s joints
A slippery, viscous fluid that has the consistency of an egg white, lubricating the joint, nourishes the cartilage, & contains phagocytes to remove debris
Synovial fluid
Articular Cartilage
Thin layer of hyaline cartilage covers the bone surfaces; with synovial fluid, it permits friction-free movement
Tough cords of connective tissue help bind the bones more firmly together
Ligaments
The knee, shoulder, & elbow contain small sacs filled with synovial fluid called
Bursa
True or False: all synovial joints are configured the same
False; not all synovial joints are configured the same
Ball & Socket Joint
Widest range of motion, most unstable, found in the shoulder & hip
Pivot Joint
Allowing the bones to rotate, or pivot; the head of the radius rotates within a groove of the ulna
Hinge Joint
Allow only back & forth movements (flexation & extension), forming a hinge joint, the convex surface of one bone (ex: humerus) fits into a concave depression on another bone (ex: ulna)
Saddle Joint
To move back & forth, from side to side; found only in the thumbs
Condyloid Joint
Articulation of the distal end of the radius with the carpal bones of the wrist & joints at the base of the fingers; allows flexion & extension, & side to side movement
Gliding Joint
Slide over each other; tarsal bones of the ankle, the carpal bones of the wrist, & the articulat processes of the vertebrae
Flexion
Bending a joint so as to decrease the angle
Extension
Straightening a joint, increasing the angle
Hyperextension
Extreme extension of a joint beyond its normall straight position
Dorsiflexion
Involved moving the toes or foot upward
Plantar flexion
Moving the toes or foot downward
Abduction
Movement away from the body
Adduction
Movement towards the body
Circumduction
Distal end of an appendage moving in a circle
Internal rotation
Spinning a bone toward the body
External rotation
Spinning a bone away from the body
Supination
Turns the palm upward
Pronation
Turns the palm downward
Inversion
Foot movement that turns the sole medially toward the other foot
Eversion
Foot movement that turns the sole laterally away from the other foot
Protraction
Moves a part forward
Retraction
Moves a part backward
How many muscles does the body contain?
Over 600
Only found in the heart; intercalated discs; striated; involuntary
Cardiac muscle
Found in the digestive tract, blood vessels, bladder, airways, & uterus; non striated; involuntary
Smooth muscle
Attached to bone causing movement of the body; voluntary; striated
Skeletal muscle
A skeletal muscle cell
Muscle fiber
Direct attachment
Muscle fibers merge with the periosteum of the bone, forming a strong attachment
Indirect attachment
The epimysium extends past the muscle as a tendon
True or False: muscle contraction does not require energy in the form of ATP
False; it does require ATP
Besides ATP, muscle contraction also requires __ because __
Calcium; without it, tropmyosin & troponin block the sites where the myosin heads would attach
Motor unit
The neuron & all the fibers it stimulates
Threshold
The minimum voltage needed to cause a muscle fiber to contract
Twitch
Single, brief contraction
Treppe, Staircase Phenomenon
Each successive twitch contracts more forcefully than the previous one
Condition of rapid contraction with only partial relaxation
Incomplete tetanus
Most skeletal muscles remain in a state of __
Incomplete tetanus
The impulses arrive so fast that the muscle cannot relax at all between stimuli, the twitches merge into one prolonged contraction
Complete tetanus
The tension within a muscle increases while its length remains the same
Isometric contractions
The muscle changes length & moves a load, while the tension within the muscle remains the same
Isotonic contractions
Origin of the muscle
Attaches to the more stationary bone
Belly of the muscle
The thick midsection
Insertion of the muscle
End of the muscle that attaches to the more movable bone
Main muscle triggering the movement
Prime mover
Muscles that assist the prime mover
Synergists
Muscles balancing these movements
Antagonist
Antagonists __ the action of the prime mover
Oppose
Enlargement of a muscle
Hypertrophy
Shrinkening of a muscle
Atrophy
Buccinator
assists in smiling & blowing as well as chewing
Masseter
closes the jaw
Sternocleidomastoid
flexes the head; rotates the head to the opposite side when only one muscle contracts
Trapezius
extends the head & flexes the head to one side; also elevates the shoulder, raises & lowers the shoulders; stabilizes the scapula during arm movements
Deltoid
abducts, flexes, & rotates the arm
The difference between the central nervous system & the peripheral nervous system:
the central nervous system consists of the brain & spinal cord; the peripheral nervous system consists of the vast network of nerves throughout the body
Sensory (afferent) Division
detect stimuli such as touch, pressure, heat, cold or chemicals & carries those signals from nerve endings to CNS
Motor (efferent) Division
relays messages from the brain to the muscle or gland cells from CNS to the rest of the body
Somatic Sensory
carries singles from skin, bones, joints, & muscles
Visceral Sensory
carries signals from viscera of heart, lungs, stomach, & bladder
Somatic Motor
allows voluntary movements of skeletal muscles
Autonomic Motor
provides “automatic” activities such as control of blood pressure & heart
Sympathetic Division
arouses the body for action
Parasympathetic Division
has a calming effect
Difference between neurons & neuroglia:
neurons are the excitable, impulse-conducting cells that perform the work of the nervous system; neuroglia protect the neurons
Supportive cells of the nervous system
glial cells (neuroglia)
Interneurons
found only in the CNS, connect the incoming sensory pathways with the outgoing motor pathways
The control center of the neuron & contains the nucleus
cell body (soma)
look like bare branches of a tree, receive signals from other neurons & conduct the information of the cell body
dendrites
carries nerve signals away from the cell body, is longer than the dendrites & contain a few branches
axon
The axons of many but not all neurons are encased in a __, consisting mostly of lipid, myelin acts to insulate the axon
myelin sheath
gaps in the myelin sheath, occur at evenly spaced intervals
nodes of Ranvier
The end of the axon branches extensively, with each axon terminal ending in a __
synaptic knob
True or False: the sciatic nerve consists of the shorted axon in the body
false; it consists of the longest axon in the body, extending from the base of the spine to the big toe in each foot
Infection or inflammation of the meninges is called __; diagnosis & treatment
spinal meningitis; a sample of cerebrospinal fluid is obtained through a lumbar puncture, fluid is then examined for bacteria & white blood cells, viral usually resolves on its own in 7-10 days, whereas bacterial requires hospitalization & treatment with intravenous antibiotics
A loss of sensory & motor function in all or part of the trunk, legs, & pelvic organs is known as
paraplegia; injury between levels of T1 & L1
An injury above the C5 vertebra produces a loss of sensory & motor function in the areas as well as the legs, trunk & pelvic organs is known as
tetraplegia or quadriplegia
An injury above C4 is especially serious because this is where the phrenic nerve exits the spinal cord, an injury here can cause
respiratory failure
Babinski Sign
used to evaluate disorders of the central nervous system, the plantar reflex occurs when the sole of the foot is stroked in a curved line from the heel to the toes with a blunt instrument; healthy adults, the toes curve downward & inward whereas if the primary motor cortex or corticospinal tract is damaged, the stroking maneuver will cause the great toe to dorsiflex as the smaller toes fan outward
If the flow of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) becomes blocked anywhere on its route, the fluid accumulates in the brain’s ventricles, which is a condition called __, or more commonly “water on the brain”
hydrocephalus
Midbrain
contains tracts that relay sensory & motor impulses, as well as centers for auditory & visual reflexes, & clusters of neurons integral to muscle control
Pons
contains tracts that convey signals to & from different parts of the brain
Medulla Oblongata
attaches the brain to the spinal cord, contains nuclei that perform functions vital to human life
The medulla contains nuclei that perform functions vital to human life that include
cardiac center, vasomotor center, & respiratory centers
- houses mores neurons than the rest of the brain combined
- receives & processes messages from all over the brain
- joins forces with the cerebral cortex to monitor body movements & send message crucial for balance, coordination, & posture
- stores information necessary for muscle groups to work together to perform smooth, efficient, & coordinated movements
- evaluates sensory input such as touch, spatial perception, & sound
cerebellum
- controls the autonomic nervous system
- contains verniers responsible for hunger, thirst, & temperature regulation
- controls the pituitary gland
- involved in multiple emotional responses, including fear, anger, pleasure, & aggression
hypothalamus
Parietal Lobe Lesion
dysfunction in this part of the brain causes people to ignore objects on the opposite side of the body, even their own arm or leg. Patients may dress only half their body & even deny that the opposite arm or leg belongs to them
Temporal Lobe Lesion
an injury here can impair the ability to identify familiar objects. Some may not even recognize their own face. In other instances, the person may lose the ability to differentiate between sounds, causing them to lose any appreciation of music
Frontal Lobe Lesion
a lesion or injury here can result in severe personality disorders & cause socially inappropriate behavior
Occipital Lobe Lesion
image here can result in blindness or other vision disturbances, including difficulty perceiving color, shape, size, & dimension; hallucinations; & difficulty reading & writing
Insula Lesion
damage to the insult can trigger difficulties with sensory perception, such as touch, taste, & smell, language difficulties, emotional imbalances, & addiction
The brain has __ cranial nerves to relay messages to the rest of the body
12
Parkinson’s Disease
degenerative brain disorder; classified as a movement disorder, resulting when dopamine-producing cells in a. region of the brainstem degenerate
Alzheimer’s Disease
degenerative brain disorder; brain tissues shrinks as AD advances; symptoms usually include memory loss, especially memory of recent events, deteriorates, & individuals have difficulty performing routine tasks. Later, judgment becomes increasingly impaired & emotional outbursts may occur. In the final stage, people may lose the ability to feed themselves, speak, recognize people, & control body functions
Bell’s Palsy
dysfunction of the facial nerve causes paralysis of the facial muscles on one side, causing the muscles on ones side of the face to sage, eyelid droops, & shows no expression; the cause is often unclear, although infection by a virus is suspected, or possibly Lyme disease, or a middle ear infection; usually resolves in 3-5 weeks
Arachnoid Mater
delicate meningeal layer lying between dura mater & pia mater
Dermatome
a specific area of the skin innervated by a spinal nerve
Dura Mater
tough, outer meningeal layer
Epidural Space
small space between the outer covering of the spinal cord & the vertebrae
Meninges
layer of fibrous connective tissue covering the brain & spinal cord
Myelin
fatty sheath encasing the axons of many neurons; formed by Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system & oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system
Neuroplasticity
the ability of the brain to change its physical structure
Subarachnoid Space
separates arachnoid mater from pia mater around the brain
Pia Mater
innermost meningeal layer covering brain & spinal cord
Subdural Space
separates dura from arachnoid mater around the brain
Synapse
space between the junction of two neurons in a neural pathway
Sensory receptors transmit information about the __ (3)
type, location, & intensity
react to various chemicals; odors, taste, & the concentration of various chemicals in the body
chemoreceptors
receptors that respond to factors that change the position of a receptor, such as pressure, stretch, or vibration
mechanoreceptors
receptors activated by a change in temperature
thermoreceptors
pain receptors that respond to tissue damage from trauma, heat, chemicals, pressure, or a lack of oxygen
nociceptors
receptor found only in the eyes, respond to light
photoreceptors
When a stimulus is continuous, the firing frequency of the nerve begins to slow, causing the sensation to diminish is known as
adaptation
True or False: nociceptors don’t occur in the brain, they do occur in the meninges
true
headaches don’t result from pain in the brain, but from
surrounding tissues
Pain originating in a deep organ may be sense as if it’s originating from the body’s surface – sometimes at a totally different part of the body called
referred pain
drugs used to relieve pain are called
analgestics
The sense of taste is known as
gustation
Most taste buds are located around protrusions on the tongue called
papillae
Umami
a Japanese slang word for meaty flavors
Taste bud cells replace themselves every __, which explains why you recover the ability to taste only a few days after burning your tongue
week or two
The sense of smell is known as
olfaction
Olfactory receptors are quickly __; they will stop sensing even the strongest smells after a short time
fatigued
Ears provide the sense of hearing, they’re also essential for __
balance (equilibrium)
The visible part of the ear
auricle (pinna)
leads through the temporal bone to the eardrum
auditory canal
Auditory Ossicles
3 bones in the body connect the eardrum to the inner ear; named for their shape:
- malleus (hammer)
- incus (anvil)
- stapes (stirrup)
equalizes pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane
eustachian tube
Middle Ear Infections
otitis media, occur commonly in children. the size & position of the eustachian tube being fairly short & horizontal allowing drainage from the nose to flow easily into the middle ear, spreading infection
Hearing occurs when sound creates __ in the air, known as __
vibrations; sound waves
Conductive hearing loss
anything that interferes with the transmission of vibration to the inner ear will result in hearing loss; ex: impacted cerumen, fluid in the middle ear, or foreign body blocking transmission
Sensorineural (nerve) hearing loss
results from the death of hair cells in the organ of Cortisones, usually a result of frequent exposure to sustained loud noise (factory workers & musicians); once the hairs are damaged, they never grow back, making this a permanent issue
transparent mucous membrane that lines the inner surface of the eyelid & covers the anterior surface of the eyeball; secretes a thin mucous film to help keep the eyeball moist
conjunctiva
secretes tears that flow onto the surface of the conjunctiva
lacrimal gland
The __ & __ oblique muscles help you rotate you eyes to the __ & __
superior; inferior; side; downward
Four recti muscles move the eye __, __, __, & __
up; down; medially; & laterally
the outermost layer of the eye, white & opaque
sclera
sits over the iris & admits light into the eye, containing no blood vessels
cornea
a ring of colored muscle; works to adjust the diameter of the pupil to control the amount of light entering the eye
iris
a thin layer of light-sensitive cells
retina
exiting from the posterior portion of the eyeball is the __ which transmits signals to the brain
optic nerve
Inside the retina are photoreceptors called __ & __ that are stimulated by light rays to produce an electrical or chemical signal
rods & cones
the space between the lens & the cornea is the __, that is further divided into an __ & a __
anterior cavity; anterior chamber & posterior chamber
a clear, watery fluid called __ fills the anterior cavity
aqueous humor
a transparent disc of tissue just behind the pupil
lens
the larger cavity lying posterior to the lens & anterior cavity, filled with a jelly-like substance called __
posterior cavity; vitreous humor
For vision to occur, all of the following must happen:
- light must enter the eye & focus on the retina to produce tiny, upside-down image of the object being viewed
- the photoreceptors in the retina must convert that image into nerve impulses
- the impulses must be transmitted to the brain for interpretation
bending of light rays
refraction
__ lines up the visual axis of each eye toward the object so that the light rays fall on the corresponding spots on each retina
convergence
What causes double vision (diplopia)?
when the eyes fail to converge, light rays from the object will fall on different parts of each retina
term for double vision
diplopia
color blindness
results when one or more of the chemicals sensitive to a particular color’s wavelength are missing
what is the common goal of the nervous system & the endocrine system?
homeostasis
endocrine glands are __ glands because they __
ductless; secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream
This gland exerts more influence on body processes than any other endocrine gland & sits just underneath the hypothalamus
pituitary
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete thyroid hormone
Prolactin
stimulates milk production in the mammary glands in females
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
stimulates ovulation & estrogen & progesterone synthesis in females & the secretion of testosterone by the testes in males
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
stimulates the production of eggs, or ova, in the ovaries of females & sperm in the testes of males
Hypersecretion during a child’s growth years will trigger rapid, excessive skeletal growth resulting in a condition called __
gigantism
If the epiphyseal plates have already fused when the hyper secretion occurs, cartilage will form new bone, causing the hands, feet, face, & jaw to enlarge – a disorder called __
acromegaly
thyroid tissue is made of tiny sacs called __
thyroid follicles
each thyroid follicle is filled with a thick fluid called __
thyroid colloid
the thymus secretes __ & __, two hormones having a role in the development of the immune system
thymosin & thymopoietin
lies just behind the stomach with its head tucked in the curve of the beginning of the small intestine & its tail reaching to the spleen
pancreas
exocrine cells are called
acini
acini secrete __ into ducts that drain into the small intestine
digestive enzymes
the clear, extracellular matrix of this liquid connective tissue, accounts for 55% of blood
plasma
WBCs & platelets for a narrow buff-colored band just underneath the plasma called the __; constitute 1% or less of the blood volume
Buffy coat
viscosity
refers to how thick or sticky a fluid is; the more viscous the fluid, the thicker it is
production of blood
hemopoiesis
tissues that produce blood cells are called __
hemopoietic tissues
the body has two types of hemopoietic tissue:
red bone marrow & lymphatic tissue
produces all types of blood
red bone marrow
by producing lymphocytes, a specific type of WBC
lymphatic tissue
__ are critical to survival, charged with delivering oxygen to cells & removing carbon dioxide
erythrocytes
True or False: erythrocytes contain a nucleus & DNA, so they can replicate themselves
False; they lack a nucleus & DNA, they cannot replicate themselves
a red pigment that gives blood its color
hemoglobin
hemoglobin consists of four ribbon-like protein chains called __
globins
the process of producing new erythrocytes is maintained through a negative feedback loop
erythropoiesis
the process of erythropoiesis takes how many days?
3-5
when the destruction of RBCs becomes excessive is called __
hemolysis
the fewest of the formed elements; they are the body’s line of defense against invasion by infectious pathogens; contain a nucleus
leukocytes
the presence or absence of granules identifies the two classification of WBCs:
granulocytes & agranulocytes
containing granules in the cytoplasm; contain a single multi lobular nucleus; three types
granulocytes: neutrophils, eosinophils, & basophils
lack cytoplasmic granules; lack lobes; two types
agranulocytes: lymphocytes & monocytes
the second most abundant of the formed elements; play a key role in hemostasis
platelets
hemostasis
stopping bleeding
when a blood vessel is cut, the body must react quickly to stop the flow of blood by:
vascular spasm, formation of a platelet plug & the formation of a blood clot
vascular spasm
constricts the blood vessel & slows the flow of blood
formation of a platelet plug
the break in the blood vessel exposes collagen fibers, creating a rough spot on the vessel’s normally slick interior; triggers changes the passing platelets, transforming them into sticky platelets
blood clotting
coagulation
normal clotting requires adequate blood levels of __
calcium
__ works to dissolve the fibrin meshwork, & the clot breaks up; a process called __
plasmin; fibrinolysis
the surface of each red blood cell carries a protein called an __; two types
antigen (agglutinogen): A & B
people with type A blood have the __
A antigen
people with B blood have the __
B antigen
people with type AB blood have __
both A & B antigen
people with type O blood have __
neither antigen
while the blood cell carries antigens, the blood plasma carries __
antibodies (agglutinins)
type A blood has anti - __
B antibodies
type B blood has anti - __
A antibodies
type AB blood has __ antibodies
no
type O blood has both anti - __
A & B antibodies
the antibody-antigen reaction would cause the RBCs to __
clump together (agglutinate)
produces large clumps of antigen-antibody molecules is called
agglutination
universal donor blood
type O
universal recipient
AB blood
Rh-positive blood contains the __
Rh antigen
base of the heart
where the great vessels enter & leave the heart
apex of the heart
the point of maximum impulse, where the strongest beat can be felt or heard
the heart lies in the thoracic cavity in the __, a space between the lungs & beneath the sternum
mediastinum
surrounding the heart is a double-walled sac called the __
pericardium
lines the heart’s chambers, covers the valve, & continues into the vessels; consists of a thin layer of squamous epithelial cells
endocardium
composed of cardiac muscle, forms the middle layer; thickest of the three layers & performs the work of the heart
myocardium
consists of a thin layer of squamous epithelial cells, covers the hear’s surface; AKA as the visceral layer of the serous pericardium
epicardium
the atria move blood only a short distance, therefore, they don’t have to __
generate as much force
because the ventricles pump rather than receive blood, they must __ than the artia
generate more force
P wave represents __
atrial depolarization
QRS complex represents __
ventricular depolarization
T wave represents __
ventricular repolarization
Atrioventricular Valves (AV) regulate flow between the __ & the __
atria; ventricles
Semilunar Valves regulate flow between the __ & the __
ventricles & the great arteries
Coronary Arteries
deliver oxygenated blood to the myocardium, while cardiac veins collect the deoxygenated blood
after flowing through the capillaries in the myocardium, the cardiac veins collect the now __
deoxygenated blood
