ACTIVITY 6 Flashcards
The laboratory belongs to a chemist named ____________
Link found out that the cows were feeding on _____________.
They discovered that it was the molecule _________, which they first named _________.
__________ is a substance capable of thinning blood and preventing blood clots from happening.
Karl Paul Link
moldy sweet clover hays
coumarin
dicoumarol
Dicoumarol
________________ are the individual chemicals from which plants are made.
Plant Constituents
___________ is the process by which plant constituents are formed, utilizing simple substances and enzymes.
Biosynthesis
The medicinal value of a plant depends on the nature of plant constituents present in it, known as the ________________.
- chemical substances solely responsible for the therapeutic activity of the plant.
active principle or active constituent (secondary metabolites)
The chemical constituents present in plants that do not possess any definite therapeutic value are known as __________________
inactive constituents
the inactive plant constituents are termed _______________
active plant constituents are termed _______________
primary plant metabolites
secondary plant metabolites
- compounds or polymers of simple molecules synthesized by plants
- do not possess therapeutic effects as such but are essential for the life of plants and contain high-energy bonds.
I.e., carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.
These are used up for the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites.
Primary plant metabolites (inactive constituents)
- complex organic molecules biosynthesized from primary plant metabolites in plant cells.
- unique to plants or groups of plants and generally possess therapeutic activity
- neither essential for plant life nor contain high energy bonds
- These are usually stored in vacuoles.
- used as medicine, food, flavors, colors, dyes, poisons, perfumes, etc.
Secondary metabolites
Part 1 - PRIMARY METABOLITES
I. CARBOHYDRATES
a. Monosaccharides
b. Oligosaccharides
c. Polysaccharides (Glycans)
- Homoglycans
* starch
*cellulose
- Heteroglycans
* gum
* mucilage
- Pectin
II. LIPIDS
- simple lipids
- compound lipids
a. fatty acids
b. fats and oils
c. waxes
d. phospholipids
III. PROTEINS
a. simple proteins
b. conjugate proteins
Amino Acids
IV. NUCLEIC ACIDS
1. purines
2. pyrimidines
- first complex organic compounds formed in plants as a result of photosynthesis
- provide storage and transport of energy
- building blocks of the cell wall
- constituents of various metabolites as glycosides and required precursors for biosynthesis of all other metabolites and the basis of all organic compounds of the living world.
CARBOHYDRATES
3 main categories of carbohydrates based on molecular size:
- Monosaccharides (True sugars)
- Oligosaccharides (True sugars)
- Polysaccharides (Non-sugars)
- are characterized by the general formula Cn(H2O)n, the presence of a carbonyl group, and a hydroxyl group. The number of carbon atoms, most often five or six.
- simplest sugar molecules and cannot be hydrolyzed into a simpler form
- crystalline substances, soluble in water, and practically insoluble in organic solvents like ether, chloroform, and absolute alcohol.
- optically active and exist in more than one isomeric form
Further, these are sub-classified based on the number of carbon atoms present.
monosaccharides
Trioses - 3 (Glyceraldehydes)
Tetroses - 4 (Threose, erythrose)
Pentoses - 5 (Xylose, arabinose, rhamnose, ribose, ribulose)
Hexoses - 6 (Glucose, Fructose, Galactose)
Heptoses - 7 (Cymarose)
These monosaccharides are also classified based on the presence of the carbonyl group:
- ________ (containing aldehyde group), e.g., glucose,
arabinose, and galactose - ________ (containing ketone group), e.g., fructose.
- Aldoses
- Ketoses
- formed by the condensation of 2-10 monosaccharide molecules, which involves the in-vivo formation of the glycosidic linkage
- The ____________ can easily be cleaved by chemical hydrolysis and enzymatic hydrolysis
On the basis of type of glycosidic linkage present the disaccharides are of two types:
a. ___________ (linkage involving reducing function of both sugar) e.g. sucrose
b. ___________ (linkage involving reducing function of only one sugar) e.g. Lactose, maltose, cellobiose
glycosidic linkage
a. Non reducing disaccharides
b. Reducing disaccharides
OLIGOSACCHARIDES
- high molecular weight polymers of a larger number of monosaccharide molecules
- sugar molecules are attached to each other by glycosidic linkage.
- These serve as
skeletal material (cellulose) or
reserve food material (starch, glycogen, and inulin). - non-sugar carbohydrates that do not have a sweet taste
- either insoluble in water (cellulose) or form colloidal solutions (starch).
polysaccharides (glycans)
Glycans are further sub-divided in two categories:
a. ____________: are formed by the condensation of larger number of same sugar molecules
b. ____________: formed by the condensation of sugar molecules and non-sugar moiety
Homoglycans (homogenous polysaccharides)
Heteroglycans (heterogeneous polysaccharides)
Homoglycans
starch
cellulose
heteroglycans
gum
mucilage
pectin
- primary reserve energy source and a universal constituent of plants and is derived from ______.
- composed of two components: _______ & _________.
- _______ (20-30%) is a water-soluble, linear chain molecule consisting of 250-300 a-D-glucose having 1-4 linkage.
It forms blue color with iodine in the iodine test. - _______ (70-90%) is insoluble in cold-water, branched-chain molecule, composed of about 1000 a-D-glucose with 1-4 and 1-6 linkage.
It forms a red to violet color with iodine.
Pharmaceutical products like dextrins and cyclo-dextrins are derivatives of starch.
glucose
amylose & amylopectin
Amylose
Amylopectin
STARCH
- universal biological polymer.
- fibrous substance of cell walls
- responsible for the structural rigidity of plants in combination with lignin
- is a linear polymer of B (1-4) linked D-glucose units
- __________ fibers are the purest form of cellulose (98%),
__________ and __________ are cellulose derivatives used in pharmacy.
Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum)
oxidized cellulose and methylcellulose
CELLULOSE
- complex heterogeneous, branched, and uronic acid-containing polysaccharide macromolecules
- translucent, amorphous substances, exudates of plants, and produced as the result of trauma
- insoluble in organic solvents, but most are soluble in water and form colloidal viscous solutions.
- optically active, and gums in dilute solutions (<1%) are precipitated upon adding ethanol or lead subacetate
- on hydrolysis yield _____ (arabinose, galactose, glucose, mannose, and xylose) with ________ (glucuronic acid and galacto-uronic acid).
sugars
sugar acids
GUM
- normal cell constituents of high molecular weight compounds, composed mainly of _________
- neither dissolve in water to form clear colloidal solutions but swells.
- yield sugar (galactose and arabinose) and sugar acids (uronic acids) on hydrolysis
- Seaweed agar and carrageenan (from red seaweeds: Gelidium and Gracilaria) contain mucilage composed of salts of sulfate esters of polysaccharides
sulphuric acid esters of sugar.
MUCILAGE
- group of polymers made-up of partially methylated 1-4 linked a galacturonic acid residue associated with arabinan and galactan units
- These are localized in the middle lamella of the vegetable cell wall, but for industrial purpose, it is obtained from the inner portion of the rind of citrus fruit or apple.
- absorbs water and swells up because its hydrophilic property forms a stiff jelly
- used in pharmaceutical and food technology.
pectin
- large and diverse group of naturally occurring organic compounds, esters of fatty acids and alcohols, and polyols
- soluble in nonpolar organic solvents (e.g., ether, chloroform, acetone & benzene) and generally insoluble in water
can be further classified as:
a. __________ (esters of fatty acids with alcohols). Examples are triglycerides (fats and oils), and waxes.
b. __________ like phospholipids and glycolipids.
a. Simple lipids
b. Compound lipids
LIPIDS
lipids
fatty acids
fats and oils
waxes
phospholipids
___________:
- on hydrolysis by acids or bases yield this component.
- may be saturated or unsaturated, and the saturated acids have higher melting points than unsaturated acids of the corresponding size.
Fatty Acids
Two polyunsaturated fatty acids, _________ and ________, are designated “essential” because their absence in the human diet has been associated with health problems, like scaly skin, stunted growth, and increased dehydration.
- also precursors to _________, a family of physiologically potent lipids present in minute amounts in most body tissues.
linoleic and linolenic
prostaglandins
- phospholipids of fatty acids with glycerol, commonly known as _________, found in plants and animals, and compose one of the major food groups of our diet.
- ________ that are solid or semi-solid at room temperature are classified as ____ and found predominantly in animals.
- The liquid triglycerides are called ____ and originate mainly from plants; triglycerides obtained from fish are also oils.
Fats are composed mainly of saturated fatty acids, while oils are composed of ____________.
Saturated and trans-fatty acid glycerides in the diet have been associated with __________.
TRIGLYCERIDES
triglycerides, fats
oils
unsaturated fatty acids
atherosclerosis
FATS AND OILS
- esters of fatty acids with long-chain monohydric alcohols and may contain hydrocarbons
- protect them from dehydration
Examples of some common waxes are Spermaceti wax, Beeswax, and Carnauba wax.
WAXES
____________, the main constituents of cell membranes
- resemble triglycerides in being ester or amide derivatives of glycerol or sphingosine with fatty acids and phosphoric acid
The bilayer membrane that separates the interior of a cell from the surrounding fluids is primarily composed of ____________.
However, it incorporates many other components, such as _________, that contribute to its structural integrity.
____________ that permit the transport of various kinds of chemical species in and out of the cell are also essential components of cell membranes.
PHOSPHOLIPIDS
phospholipids
cholesterol
Protein channels
- class of organic compounds vital to every living cell
- present in the form of skin, hair, callus, cartilage, muscles, tendons, and ligaments
- protects and provides structure to the body of a multicellular organism
- The enzymes, hormones, and antibodies are made up of this, which catalyze and regulate the physiological activities of plants and human beings.
proteins
- __________and various _________ transport oxygen and other substances within an organism
- may also become toxic like botulinum toxin, venom toxins, ricin, and toxins produced by microorganisms like _______ and ________
- _________ & _________ are composed of 15 to 25% nitrogen and about an equal amount of oxygen
- _________ are small proteins having molecular weights less than 10,000.
Hemoglobins
lipoproteins
tetanus and diphtheria
Proteins and peptides
peptides
2 types of proteins
a. _______________: Composed of amino acids and soluble in water, dilute acid solutions, dilute alkali solutions, dilute salt solutions or in 70% alcohol.
E.g. Albumins, globulins, glutelins, protamines and histones.
b. _______________: Composed of other structural elements besides amino acids.
E.g. chromoproteins, lipoproteins, metalloproteins and glycoproteins.
Simple proteins
Conjugate proteins
- plant proteins contain less content of ______________, whereas plant cell wall is rich in ___________.
Plants do not vary in their protein makeup.
sulfur-containing amino acids
hydroxyproline
Hydrolysis of proteins by boiling aqueous acid or base yields an assortment of small molecules identified as ____________________
a-amino carboxylic acids
PROTEINS
2 categories of amino acids
- _____________: Essential diet components since they are not synthesized by the human body.
- _____________: Synthesized by the human body.
Essential amino acids
Non-essential amino acids
_____________: major components of chromosomes present in the nuclei of cells
- Elemental analysis of this revealed the presence of __________, in addition to the C, H, N & O
- complete hydrolysis of chromosomal nucleic acids gave inorganic phosphate, 2-deoxyribose, and four different heterocyclic bases
- chromosomal nucleic acids are called_____________
- Analogous nucleic acids in which the sugar component is ribose are termed ____________
- The acidic character of the nucleic acids was attributed to the ___________________
Nucleic Acids
phosphorus
deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA)
ribonucleic acids (RNA)
phosphoric acid moiety
The heterocyclic bases present in nucleic acid are of two types:
- __________ (monocyclic bases): Adenine and guanine
- __________ (bicyclic bases): Thymine, cytosine and uracil
Purines
Pyrimidines
