A & P Exam 1 Flashcards
What can happen if you have a drastic change in pH?
- nerve/muscle problems
- Ca, K, Na can have problems
processes at cellular level
- signaling, transport, protection, absorption, connecting
4 types of tissues
epithelial, connective, muscular, nervous
epithelial tissue
- lines all surfaces
- protection : stratified squamous
- absorption: thicker
- lots of vacuoles, smooth ER, mitochondria,
cytoskeleton - in digestive tract - microvilli
- some filtration (lungs)
connective tissue
mechanical role:
- support, connection
- metabolic support : bones have mineral storage
- stores fat (adipose tissue)
what happens when Ca too low in connective tissue
reabsorb Ca from bones into the bloodstream
muscle tissue
contractility
- to move and stabilize
nervous tissue
regulation:
- integrate, respond, communicate (cell signaling)
- stabilize
type of tissue in epidermis of skin
epithelial tissue
type of tissue in the dermis and subcutaneous layers of skin
connective tissue
role of muscle tissue in skin
attaches to the hair follicles, goose bumps
role of nervous tissue in skin
has receptors sensitive to T, pain, pressure
what tissue types does the kidney have
epithelial, connective, nervous, and in some way muscle (for the blood vessels - but that is a stretch)
What do the kidneys do if they detect a decrease in O2
secrete a hormone that targets the bones to tell them to make more RBC
How does kidney get more salt
hormones tell kidney to absorb more salt which promotes water movement
- increase in salt = increase water = increase in BP
Integumentary system
protection thermoregulation vitamin D production sensory input (touch) insulation
Muscular system
movement, support
protection: abdominal region no bone to protect
thermoregulation: heat production by muscles
Skeletal system
protection, support
mineral storage (Ca): strong bones
- draw Ca out of bones if deficient, it is more important in the blood
blood cell production (RBC, WBC, platelets)
what happens if bone has more force exerted on it
increase in bone density to support muscle
Nervous system
coordinates all other systems coordination, regulation, immediate response - fight or flight - reversible (once you relax) - memory and learning
Endocrine system
nerve control over most of this system
- coordination, regulation
- LONG term responses, IRREVERSIBLE
- developmental control
sympathetic nervous system role in endocrine system
adrenaline or norepinephrine
- HR increases, BP increases - once you relax it goes down
endocrine system women
increased cardiovascular growth
estrogen can be a growth factor
endocrine system men
testosterone - more muscle growth
- denser bone, larger joints, broader chest
- can lose muscle mass, but joint will not shrink
some things reversible
cardiovascular system
circulation:
- gas, nutrients, waste
- fluid and pH homeostasis
- electrolyte balance
- thermoregulation - restrict so blood stays in core
- blood clotting
Lymphatic system
secondary circulatory system
- for immunity and defense it screens 10% of fluid to monitor
- T cells will go attack abnormal cells
- vaccines are to prep the immune system for infection
Respiratory system
gas exchange, homeostasis of pH, vocalization, CO2 used in buffering
Digestive system
processes/absorbs nutrients, waste removal
What organ is the digestive system partially dependent on and why?
Liver
- liver clears out excess cholesterol (excretory)
- liver has direct pathway to small intestine to send out secretions
Urinary system
Kidneys: - filtration of blood - fluid and electrolyte homeostasis - pH homeostasis - waste removal kidneys can produce bicarbonate
Female reproductive system
- hormone production
- secondary sex characteristics
- sexual intercourse
- procreation
- support developing embryo
- lactation
Male reproductive system
- hormone production
- secondary sex characteristics
- sexual intercourse
- procreation
Putting it all together: Sickle Cell Anemia Example
- 1 base pair altered: point mutation of glutamate (hydrophilic) to valine (hydrophobic)
- active site now hydrophobic, hydrophobic interacts with hydrophobic
- fibers form and stick together, sickled shaped cell
- blocks blood vessels, decrease in oxygen supply, pain signals, cell and organ damage
How does sickle cell anemia effect connective tissue?
blood is connective tissue - blood vessels get blocked, and blood carries oxygen, hypoxia
homeostasis
maintaining steady state, NOT equilibrium
example of homeostasis with decreased K levels
might get muscle cramps, twitches
example of homeostasis: increased K
start retaining water
Three basic components of a feedback loop
receptor, integration center, effector
receptor
picks up change and takes it to integration center
integration center
most commonly nervous system, this is where the response is determined
effector
action taken by integration center
- may be one effect or many
Negative feedback loop
most common
effector action works in opposition to stimulus
returns system to normal
STABILITY
Positive feedback loop
effector action works to enhance stimulus action
Only removal of stimulus can return it to normal
ACCELERATES CHANGE
Application: Temperature in Cold
Is it negative or positive, why?
negative
- cold in the snow
- shivering (thermoregulation) muscles make heat
- constriction of blood vessels
- keep less surface area (less ROM, stay close to body)
Application: Blood Sugar after McDonalds
Is it negative or positive, why?
negative
- blood sugar is too high, have to bring down
- pee out sugar in urine
- liver can take it out to store for energy
- if full you might sit down
integrator: beta cells in pancreas
Application: Blood Clotting
Is it negative or positive, why?
positive
- damaged tissue, as long as there is available tissue there will be clotting
- rushing RBC, WBC, platelets to damaged site
- as long as it is still damaged clotting cascade will continue
Application: Child birth
It is negative or positive, why?
positive
- need to enhance the stimulus of cramps until the baby is out, if not the baby would never come out
- need the signals to stretch
How can a fever be harmful?
if it is too high systems might not work properly
respiratory system shuts down
How is a fever beneficial?
It increases body T which can make it inhospitable to bacteria (too hot for them)
Is a fever a positive loop or negative?
positive, but with increased body temperature you start to sweat which brings T back down, so a little bit of a negative loop
cells exist and function in what type of environment?
aqueous
What is the body’s internal environment involved in?
the distribution of electrolytes and other solutes
maintaining pH
affects cell excitability (muscle, nervous), communication (neurons), and transport
TBW in liter for males and females
males: 60% females: 50%
How is water distributed in the body?
muscles = 85% fat = 15% glycogen = 75%
When you begin to lose weight where do you first lose it?
lose it around waist / liver because that is where glycogen is
TBW Calculation
weight in lbs / 2.2 = weight in kg
weight in kg x 0.6 (men) or 0.5 (women)
Why on average is there a difference between males and females in TBW?
women have more visceral mass and men have more muscle mass
- muscle holds 85% water and visceral only holds about 15%
How is TBW effected by aging and dehydration risks in seniors?
As you age TBW decreases
lower TBW means you are not holding as much water in the body - dehydration risk
How is TBW effected in someone ho is athletic vs sedentary?
someone who is athletic has a greater TBW bc they have more muscle
In hot weather how does this effect athletic vs sedenetary people?
the sedentary person is at a greater risk because they have less TBW - dehydrated already
What makes up the extracellular fluid?
plasma and interstitial fluid
Where is 1/3 of the TBW located?
in the ECFV, the ICFV only has 2/3 TBW
Is there more interstitial fluid or plasma in the ECFV?
interstitial fluid
What causes fluid shift between the ECF and ICF?
osmotic changes (pressure)
total solute concentration in a fluid compartment
osmolality
ability of the combined solutes to generate an osmotic driving force causing water movement between compartments
- subsection of solutes causes water movement
tonicity
Why does urea contribute to osmolality but not tonicity?
urea can freely move so it does not drive water movement since it can move itself
higher water potential
lots of free water, less solute
hypotonic
low water potential
less free water, more solute
hypertonic
Clinically is ECFV or ICFV valued more and why?
ECFV because it has a more widespread effect than changes in ICFV
What do receptors involved in regulation of internal aqueous environments monitor?
ECFV
Clinically, ECFV is measured and calculated as…
serum osmolality
Three main ECFV osmoles assessed clinically
sodium, glucose, urea
confined to one compartment, affect tonicity and drive water movement
effective osmole
what is an example of an effective osmole
sodium and glucose
freely move between compartments
ineffective osmole
what is an example of an ineffective osmole?
urea
what is the main determinant of the ECFV?
sodium
the three main receptor systems that work to maintain sodium balance
- kidney juxtaglomerular cells
- atrial stretch receptors
- aortic and carotid receptors
the start of filtration in the kidneys is the glomerulus
these cells are next to the glomerulus and surround capillary beds
- monitor BP, osmotic P, sodium in cell
kidney juxtaglomerular cells
monitors P and fluid volume, in heart
atrial stretch receptors
highest P from heart beating, monitor P
aortic and carotid receptors
What happens when Na levels increase?
ECFV overload can result leading to edema
Two cases of edema?
- Na decreases and water remains the same
- Na normal and water is problem
Two cases of dehydration?
- Na normal but too low water volume
- if Na abnormally high and there is not enough water to bring it back down
What happens when Na levels decrease?
ECFV depletion can lead to decreased pressure
- dehydrated and can not hold water in the blood
Serum Osmolality Equation (OSM calc)
2 x [Na] + [glucose]/18 + [urea]/2.8
calculated osmolality
uses only the 3 main osmoles
measured osmolality
of all solutes in blood
Normal range for serum osmolality
275-295 mOsm/L
Osmolal gap
difference between the OSM calc and OSM meas
Osmolal gap standard value
10 mOsm/L
- if greater it is abnormal and suggests presence of exogenous substance
exogenous substance
something external, other than the big 3, it could be alcohol, excess ketones in diabetics, excess lactic acid after exercising
