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Biology > 7a. MASS TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS > Flashcards

7a. MASS TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS Flashcards

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1
Q

Define partial pressure

A

The measure of a concentration of a gas

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2
Q

Describe the structure of haemoglobin

A

A globular quaternary protein. It contains four subunits, each containing a haem binding site.

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3
Q

How many molecules of oxygen can a fully saturated haemoglobin carry?

A

4 molecule, 8 atoms.

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4
Q

Define oxygen loading/association

A

The binding of oxygen to haemoglobin

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5
Q

Where does oxygen association occur?

A

At tissues where there is a high partial pressure of oxygen

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6
Q

Where does oxygen association occur in humans?

A

The lungs

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7
Q

Define unloading/dissociation

A

The detaching of oxygen from haemoglobin

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8
Q

Where does oxygen dissociation occur?

A

At tissues where there is a low partial pressure of oxygen

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9
Q

Where does oxygen dissociation occur in humans?

A

Respiring tissues

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10
Q

Name the complex that is formed when oxygen associates to haemoglobin

A

Oxyhaemoglobin

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11
Q

What shape is the oxygen dissociation curve?

A

S (sigmoid) shaped

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12
Q

Recall the equation to calculate the % saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen

A

% saturation = (oxygenated haemoglobin / maximum saturation) x 100

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13
Q

State the normal maximum saturation of haemoglobin at atmospheric pressures

A

97%

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14
Q

Define affinity

A

The tendancy a haemoglobin has to bind with oxygen

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15
Q

Where is haemoglobin’s affinity for oxygen highest?

A

Where there is a high partial pressure of oxygen

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16
Q

Where is haemoglobin’s affinity of oxygen lowest?

A

Where there is a high partial pressure of carbon dioxide (and a low partial pressure of oxygen)

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17
Q

Why does the binding of the first oxygen molecule to haemoglobin make it easier for the second oxygen to bind?

A

Because the binding of the first oxygen molecule changes the tertiary structure of haemoglobin​. This uncovers another haem binding site.

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18
Q

How does increasing carbon dioxide concentration in solution affect the pH of the solution?

A

It decreases it (makes it more acidic)

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19
Q

Write the equation to show the reaction between carbon dioxide and water

A

Carbon Dioxide + Water ↔ Carbonic Acid

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20
Q

Where in the body would pH be lowest, and why?

A

Respiring tissues, because the concentration of carbon dioxide is highest

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21
Q

Why will blood leaving a muscle have a lower pH than blood entering a muscle?

A

Increased carbon dioxide concentration in the blood creates more carbonic acid, which releases more H+ ions, which reduces the pH of the blood

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22
Q

Define the Bohr Effect

A

Haemoglobin’s binding affinity is inversely related both to the concentration of carbon dioxide, and acidity

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23
Q

Will haemoglobin have a lower of higher affinity for oxygen at muscles?

A

Lower

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24
Q

What will happen to the amount of oxygen dissociating at muscles?

A

Increased oxygen dissociating at muscles

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25
Q

Why is the Bohr Effect advantageous at muscles?

A

More oxygen is required because of the higher rate of respiration

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26
Q

At an increased ppCO2, will the oxygen dissociation curve shift to the left or the right?

A

To the right

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27
Q

Where in the human body will the oxygen dissociation curve shift to the right?

A

Respiring tissues

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28
Q

Why will the oxygen dissociation curve shift to the right at a higher ppCO2?

A

Haemoglobin’s affinity for oxygen decreases, so more oxygen is unloaded

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29
Q

At an increased ppO2 (decreased ppCO2), will the oxygen dissociation curve shift to the left or the right?

A

To the left

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30
Q

Where in the human body will the oxygen dissociation curve shift to the left?

A

Lungs

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31
Q

Why will the oxygen dissociation curve shift to the left at a higher ppO2 (decreased ppCO2)?

A

Haemoglobin’s affinity for oxygen increases, so more oxygen is loaded

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32
Q

Describe the function of the heart

A

To produce a pressure gradient to pump blood in one direction

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33
Q

Name the chambers of the heart

A

Right and left atria, right and left ventricles

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34
Q

Why is blood pressure is highest when blood leaves the ventricles. Why?

A

Because ventricles produce the strongest contractions.

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35
Q

State why the left ventricle is thicker than the right side

A

To create enough pressure during contraction to pump blood to the whole body, rather than just to the lungs

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36
Q

Why is the heart called a ‘double-pump’?

A

Because the right side pumps blood to the lungs, and the left side pumps blood to the body

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37
Q

Name the structure that separates the left and right side of the heart

A

Septum

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38
Q

Why it is important to prevent mixing of the blood from the two sides of the heart?

A

To prevent oxygenated and deoxygenated blood from mixing, which would reduce the volume of oxygen reaching respiring tissues

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39
Q

Describe the function of the coronary arteries

A

To transport oxygen and glucose to the heart muscle to use in respiration to release energy for contraction

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40
Q

How is a unidirectional flow of blood maintained in the cardiovascular system?

A

Valves stop the backflow of blood, and blood moves down a pressure gradient (created by the heart)

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41
Q

Where are the atrioventricular valves found?

A

Between each atria and ventricle

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42
Q

Describe the function of the atrioventricular valves

A

They prevent the backflow of blood from the ventricles to the atria

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43
Q

Where is the tricuspid valve found?

A

Between the right atria and the right ventricle

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44
Q

When will the tricuspid valve open?

A

When the pressure in the right atrium is higher than the pressure in the right ventricle

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45
Q

When will the tricuspid valve close?

A

When the pressure in the right atrium is lower than the pressure in the right ventricle

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46
Q

Where is the bicuspid valve found?

A

Between the left atria and the left ventricle

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47
Q

When will the bicuspid valve open?

A

When the pressure in the left atrium is higher than the pressure in the left ventricle

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48
Q

When will the bicuspid valve close?

A

When the pressure in the left atrium is lower than the pressure in the left ventricle

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49
Q

Name the vessels connected to the four chambers of the heart

A

Aorta, vena cava, pulmonary artery, pulmonary vein

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50
Q

Describe the function of the vena cava

A

Transports deoxygenated blood back from the body tissues into the right atrium

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51
Q

Describe the function of the pulmonary artery

A

Transports deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs

52
Q

Describe the function of the pulmonary vein

A

Transports oxygenated blood from the lungs into the left atrium

53
Q

Describe the function of the aorta

A

Transports oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the body tissues

54
Q

Where are the semilunar valves found?

A

Between the ventricles and the arteries

55
Q

Describe the function of the semi-lunar valves

A

Prevent backflow of blood from the arteries to the ventricles

56
Q

Where is the pulmonary semilunar valve found?

A

Between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery

57
Q

When will the pulmonary semilunar valve valve open?

A

When the pressure in the right ventricle is higher than the pressure in the pulmonary artery

58
Q

When will the pulmonary semilunar valve valve close?

A

When the pressure in the right ventricle is lower than the pressure in the pulmonary artery

59
Q

Where is the aortic semilunar valve found?

A

Between the left ventricle and the aorta

60
Q

When will the aortic semilunar valve valve open?

A

When the pressure in the left ventricle is higher than the pressure in the aorta

61
Q

When will the aortic semilunar valve valve close?

A

When the pressure in the left ventricle is lower than the pressure in the aorta

62
Q

Name the three stages of the cardiac cycle

A

Diastole, atrial systole and ventricular systole

63
Q

What happens during diastole?

A

All chambers relax, and all chamber passively fill with blood

64
Q

Which valves are open and closed during diastole

A

Atrioventricular valves are open and semilunar valves are closed

65
Q

What happens during atrial systole?

A

Both atria contract and blood passes into the ventricles down a pressure gradient

66
Q

Which valves are open and closed during atrial systole?

A

Atrioventricular valves are open and semilunar valves are closed

67
Q

What happens during ventricular systole?

A

Both ventricles contract and blood passes into the arteries down a pressure gradient

68
Q

Which valves are open and closed during ventricular systole?

A

Semilunar valves are open, and atrioventricular valves are closed

69
Q

Name the four structures that control the cardiac cycle

A

Sinoatrial node (SAN), Atrioventricular valve (AVN), Bundle of His, and Purkinje Fibres

70
Q

Where are both the SAN and AVN located?

A

In the right atrium

71
Q

Where is the Bundle of His located?

A

In the septum

72
Q

Where are the Purkjne Fibres located?

A

In the walls of the ventricles

73
Q

Why is the SAN considered the pacemaker of the heart?

A

Because it creates the first impulse

74
Q

How does the AVN coordinate cardiac contraction?

A

It controls the speed and direction of the contraction

75
Q

When the SAN creates the first impulse, where does the impulse travel across, and what does this cause?

A

The atria. It causes the atria to contract.

76
Q

Why does the AVN delay the impulse?

A

To ensure the atria are empty before the ventricles contract

77
Q

Where does the AVN send the wave of impulse down?

A

The Bundle of His to the apex of the heart

78
Q

Why does the impulse travel up the Purkjne fibres from the apex of the heart upwards?

A

To ensure the ventricles contract from the base upwards

79
Q

Define heart rate

A

The number of cardiac cycles per minute

80
Q

Recall the equation to calculate heart rate

A

HR = 60 / time for one cardiac cycle (bpm)

81
Q

Define stroke volume

A

The volume of blood pumped out of the heart / left ventricle during one cardiac cycle

82
Q

Define cardiac output

A

The volume of blood pumped by the heart in one minute

83
Q

State the equation to calculate cardiac output

A

CO = stroke volume x heart rate

84
Q

Recall the five types of blood vessels in order that blood travels through them from the left ventricle

A

Arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules and veins

85
Q

Why can arteries, arterioles, venules and veins be described as organs?

A

Because they are made of multiple different types of tissue

86
Q

Why are capillaries not considered organs?

A

Because they are only made of endothelial tissue

87
Q

In which direction do arteries transport blood?

A

Away from the heart

88
Q

Which tissue do arteries contain more of than other blood vessels?

A

Elastic tissue

89
Q

Why do arteries contain more elastic tissue compared to other blood vessels?

A

To smooth out blood flow and maintain blood pressure

90
Q

How do arteries smooth out blood flow and maintain blood pressure?

A

Because they can stretch when the pressure is high, and recoil when the pressure is low

91
Q

Why does the aorta have a thick wall?

A

To withstand the high pressures (because it’s next to the left ventricle)

92
Q

Why does the aorta contain muscle tissue?

A

To contract during vasoconstriction

93
Q

Why does the aorta have a smooth endothelium?

A

To reduce friction with fast-flowing blood

94
Q

Which tissue do arteriole contain more of than other blood vessels?

A

Muscle tissue

95
Q

Why do arteriole contain more muscle tissue compared to other blood vessels?

A

To control blood flow to capillaries and to redistribute blood to different organs

96
Q

Describe how arterioles vasoconstrict

A

The muscle tissue contracts, narrowing the lumen

97
Q

Describe how arterioles vasodilate

A

The muscle tissue relaxes, widening the lumen

98
Q

Why does the rate of blood flow decrease as blood vessels get smaller?

A

The diameter of the lumen of the blood vessels decreases. This increases the total area of the endothelium in contact with the blood. Friction increases.

99
Q

Describe the function of capillaries

A

Substance exchange between blood and cells

100
Q

One adaptation of capillaries is that many narrow capillaries create a slow blood flow. Explain why.

A

This increases time for exchange to occur

101
Q

One adaptation of capillaries is that they have a narrow lumen. Explain why.

A

This means a large surface area of blood is in contact with the walls of the capillaries

102
Q

One adaptation of capillaries is that they have thin walls. Explain why.

A

To create a short diffusion pathway

103
Q

One adaptation of capillaries is that their walls are permeable. Explain why.

A

To allow for substance exchange

104
Q

What is the smallest diameter of a capillary limited by?

A

The diameter of a blood cell

105
Q

In which direction do veins transport blood?

A

Towards from the heart

106
Q

Describe the three adaptations of veins

A

Valves, wide lumen and muscles surrounding the veins

107
Q

Explain why veins have valves

A

To prevent backflow of blood

108
Q

Explain why veins have a wide lumen

A

To reduce friction and increase the volume of blood transported

109
Q

Explain why veins are surrounded by muscles

A

To contract to press the walls of the veins to squeeze the blood along

110
Q

What is cardiovascular disease?

A

CVD is a general term for conditions affecting the heart or blood vessels

111
Q

List the 6 main factors that affect the incidence and severity of CVD

A

Age, sex, alcohol consumption, exercise, diet and genetics

112
Q

What is tissue fluid?

A

An aqueous solution that surrounds the cells in your body

113
Q

Name six substances contained in tissue fluid

A

Water, glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, ions and oxygen

114
Q

Which two systems in the body are involved in tissue fluid formation and transport?

A

Cardiovascular system and lymphatic system

115
Q

At which end of a capillary bed is the pressure the highest?

A

The arteriole end

116
Q

Why is the blood at the arteriole end of the capillary bed under the highest pressure?

A

Because this end is closer to the strong contractions of the left ventricle

117
Q

Why does the high hydrostatic pressure at the arteriole end of a capillary bed cause tissue fluid to be formed?

A

Because it forces fluid out of the capillaries

118
Q

Whilst tissue fluid is being formed, what remains inside the capillaries?

A

Large proteins remain

119
Q

How will the concentration of small molecules in the tissue fluid be different once exchange has occurred?

A

It will be lower

120
Q

What happens to the water potential of the blood remaining inside the capillaries towards the venule end of the capillary beds?

A

It becomes more negative

121
Q

Why does the water potential of the blood inside the capillaries become more negative towards the venule end of the capillary bed?

A

Because water has left the capillary, but proteins remain in the blood

122
Q

What type of gradient does the return of tissue fluid to the blood occur down?

A

A water potential gradient

123
Q

During the return of tissue fluid into the blood, why does the water move from the outside to the inside of the capillary?

A

Because the water potential of the blood inside the capillary is lower than the tissue fluid

124
Q

By which type of molecular transport does the water move back into the capillary during the reabsorption of tissue fluid?

A

Osmosis

125
Q

Which organ system removes extra tissue fluid and returns it to the blood?

A

Lymphatic system

Biology (26 decks)

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