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Biology > 15. NERVOUS, COORDINATION & MUSCLE > Flashcards

15. NERVOUS, COORDINATION & MUSCLE Flashcards

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1
Q

Name the two systems involved in coordination in animals.

A

Nervous system and Endocrine system.

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2
Q

Compare how each coordination system communicates

A

Nervous system - communicates by electrical impulses.
Endocrine system - communicates by hormones.

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3
Q

Compare transmission in both coordination systems

A

Nervous system - through neurones.
Endocrine system - through the bloodstream

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4
Q

Compare speed of transmission in both coordination systems

A

Nervous system - fast.
Endocrine system - slow

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5
Q

Compare which parts of the body each coordination system travels to

A

Nervous system - impulses only travel to specific parts of the body.
Endocrine system - travel to all parts of the body.

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6
Q

Compare the speed of responses in both coordination systems

A

Nervous system - Fast responses.
Endocrine system - Slow responses.

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7
Q

Compare how long-lasting the responses are in both coordination systems

A

Nervous system - short-lived responses
Endocrine system - long-lasting responses

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8
Q

Compare whether the responses are widespread or localised in each coordination system

A

Nervous system - localised responses.
Endocrine system - widespread responses

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9
Q

In which coordination system are the effects usually temporary and reversible?

A

Nervous system

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10
Q

In which coordination system are the effects usually permanent and irreversible?

A

Endocrine system

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11
Q

Name the structures the make up a mammalian neurone

A

A cell body, dendrons, an axon, a myelin sheath (made of schwann cells), and nodes of Ranvier.

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12
Q

What does the cell body contain?

A

Organelles including a nucleus and lots of of RER and Golgi Apparatus

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13
Q

Why does the cell body contain a large amount of RER?

A

For the production of neurotransmitters (proteins).

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14
Q

Why does the cell body contain a large amount of Golgi Apparatus?

A

To pack and transport neurotransmitter

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15
Q

Describe the function of dendrites

A

Transmit electrical impulses towards the cell body.

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16
Q

Describe the function of the axon

A

Transmit electrical impulses away from the cell body.

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17
Q

State what Schwann cells are.

A

They wrap themselves around the neurone many times to form the myelin sheath

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18
Q

State the function of the myelin sheath.

A

Provides electrical insulation to increase the speed of electrical impulse transmission

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19
Q

What are nodes of Ranvier?

A

Gaps between Schwann cells (where there are no myelin sheath)

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20
Q

Name 3 types of neurones.

A

Sensory, Motor and Intermediate (Relay) neurones.

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21
Q

State the function of a sensory neurone.

A

Transmit electrical impulses from a receptor to an intermediate neurone.

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22
Q

State the function of a motor neurone.

A

Transmit electrical impulses from an intermediate neurone to an effector.

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23
Q

State the function of the intermediate neurone.

A

Transmit impulses from sensory to motor neurones.

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24
Q

Name the two main effectors.

A

Muscles and glands.

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25
Q

Which neurone only exists in the CNS?

A

Intermediate (relay) neurone.

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26
Q

Why do intermediate neurones have many dendrites?

A

To coordinate electrical impulses from mulitple different sensory receptors.

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27
Q

Why does this neurone have many axon terminals?

A

To coordinate many different effectors.

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28
Q

What is potential difference?

A

The difference of electrical potential between two points.

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29
Q

Name the two ions involved creating potential difference over a neuronal membrane

A

Na+ and K+

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30
Q

Name the channel proteins involved in controlling Na+ and K+ ions movement.

A

Sodium-potassium pump, Voltage-gated K+ channel, Voltage-gated Na+ channel, Non voltage-gated K+ channels.

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31
Q

What is resting potential in mV?

A

-70mV

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32
Q

What do we mean when we day the resting potential ‘negative’?

A

The inside of the neurone is more negative than the outside.

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33
Q

Describe the function of the sodium-potassium pump

A

It actively transports 3 Na+ out of the axon, and actively transports 2 K+ into the axon

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34
Q

Which ion is the neuronal membrane more permeable to at rest?

A

K+

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35
Q

Describe how depolarisation occurs

A

Voltage-gated Na+ channels open and Na+ diffuse into the neurone.

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36
Q

Define threshold potential

A

The level of depolarisation required to initiate an action potential.

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37
Q

What is the threshold potential in mV?

A

-55mV

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38
Q

What happens if depolarisation does not reach threshold value?

A

No action potential is initiated so depolarisation remains local

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39
Q

If a depolarisation does reach threshold potential, what does it stimulate?

A

More Na+ channels to open

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40
Q

Define action potential.

A

The propogation of an electrical impulse down a neurone

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41
Q

What is the maximum depolarisation during an action potential in mV?

A

+40mV

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42
Q

Describe how repolarisation occurs

A

Voltage-gated Na+ channels close and voltage-gated K+ channels open. K+ diffuse out of the neurone.

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43
Q

Define hyperpolarisation

A

When the potential difference over the neurone membrane becomes more negative than resting potential (-70mV)

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44
Q

How is resting potential re-established?

A

The voltage-gated K+ channels close.

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45
Q

Define the All or Nothing Principle

A

The strength of an electrical impulse in a neurone is independent of the strength of a stimulus

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46
Q

Why are action potentials referred to as all or nothing?

A

Depolarisation needs to reach a threshold value before an action potential is propogated. The action potential always reaches +40mV.

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47
Q

How is the strength of a stimulus communicated?

A

By the frequency of the action potentials.

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48
Q

What happens to frequency of electrical impulses if the stimuli gets stronger?

A

The stronger the stimuli the higher the frequency of electrical impulses.

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49
Q

What is the refractory period?

A

This is the period of time after an action potential where no new action potential can be generated.

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50
Q

When will a section of a neurone go into the refractory period?

A

After repolarisation

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51
Q

How is the refractory period created?

A

Na+ voltage-gated channels are closed and inactive

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52
Q

A greater stimulation is required to generate an action potential in the refractory period. Why?

A

The membrane is hyperpolarised, so is more negative than at rest. Therefore a greater depolarisation is required to reach threshold potential.

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53
Q

Recall the three functions of the refractory period

A

Produces discrete impulses, ensures action potentials are unidirectional, and limits the number of action potentials

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54
Q

Recall the three factors that affect the speed of impulse transmission

A

Myelination, axon diameter and temperature

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55
Q

How does myelination affect the speed of nervous transmission?

A

It increases it

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56
Q

How does temperature affect the speed of a nerve impulse?

A

As temperature increases, the rate of impulse conduction increases

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57
Q

How does axon diameter affect the speed of a nerve impulse?

A

As axon diameter increases, the rate of impulse conduction increases

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58
Q

State the name given to conduction down a myelinated axon

A

Saltatory conduction.

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59
Q

Describe how saltatory conduction occurs

A

Depolarisation only occurs at nodes because the impulses jump from node to node

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60
Q

Why is conduction in non-myelinated neurones slower than in myelinated neurone

A

There is no saltatory conduction, therefore depolarisation occurs over the length of the membrane

61
Q

How is the speed of an action potential transmitted in a myelinated axon compared to an unmyelinated axon?

A

It is faster in a myelinated axon compared to an unmyelinated axon.

62
Q

How does diameter of the the axon affect the speed of the nerve impulse?

A

The greater the diameter of the axon, the faster the speed of conductance.

63
Q

Why does increasing axon diameter increase speed of conductance?

A

Because there is less leakage of ions from a large axon.

64
Q

How does temperature affect the speed of a nerve impulse?

A

The higher the temperature the faster the speed of the nerve impulse.

65
Q

Why does increasing temperature increase the speed of nerve impulses?

A

Increasing temperature increases the speed of ion diffusion

66
Q

What is a synapse?

A

The junction between two neurones.

67
Q

What are the chemicals transmitted between synapses called?

A

Neurotransmitters

68
Q

What is the neurone that releases the neurotransmitter called?

A

Pre-synaptic neurone

69
Q

What is the swollen portion at the end of a neurone called?

A

The synaptic knob

70
Q

What are neurotransmitters stored in?

A

Synaptic vesicles

71
Q

What type of Na+ channel exists in the membrane of the post-synpatic knob?

A

Ligand-gated Na+ channels

72
Q

What causes calcium ions to diffuse into the pre-synaptic knob?

A

Depolarisation of the membrane / an action potential

73
Q

What does the influx of calcium ions into the pre-synaptic knob cause?

A

Exocytosis of the neurotransmitter into the synpatic cleft

74
Q

How does the neurotransmitter travel across the synaptic cleft?

A

Diffusion

75
Q

What happens to the neurotransmitter molecules once they reach the post-synaptic membrane?

A

They bind to the ligand-gated channels in the post synaptic membrane

76
Q

Name the two types of neutrotransmitter

A

Excitatory and inhibitory

77
Q

Name an excitatory neurotransmitter.

A

Acetylcholine

78
Q

Describe how the release of an excitatory neurotransmitter would stimulate a post-synpatic neurone

A

They stimulate more Na+ channels to open, causing Na+ to diffuse into the neurone, depolarising the post-synaptic membrane

79
Q

Do excitatory neurotransmitters change the membrane potential towards or away from threshold potential?

A

Towards threshold potential

80
Q

Name an inhibitory neurotransmitter

A

GABA

81
Q

Do inhibitory neurotransmitters change the membrane potential towards or away from threshold potential?

A

They stimulate more Cl- channels to open, causing Cl- to diffuse into the neurone, hyperpolarising the post-synaptic membrane

82
Q

Do inhibitory neurotransmitters change the membrane potential towards or away from threshold potential?

A

Away from threshold potential

83
Q

Define summation

A

The additive effect of multiple impulses at a synpase

84
Q

What are the two types of summation?

A

Spatial and temporal

85
Q

What is spatial summation?

A

Action potentials from different presynaptic neurones release enough neurotransmitter to exceed threshold potential.

86
Q

What is temporal summation?

A

Multiple action potentials from a single presynaptic neurone releases enough neurotransmitter to exceed threshold potential

87
Q

Explain how an excitatory and an inhibitory neurone both synapsing with one post-synpatic neurone would have an antagonistic effect

A

The balance of impulses from both neurones will determine whether the potential difference rises above threshold potential or not

88
Q

Describe the three actions drugs can have in a synapse

A

They can bind to receptors on the post-synpatic membrane, inhibit the enzyme that breaks down neurotransmitters, and block the transport of neurotransmitters out of the synpase

89
Q

Describe which drug action would reduce the effect of a neurotransmitter

A

Binding to receptors on the post-synaptic membrane

90
Q

Describe which drug actions would increase the effect of a neurotransmitter

A

Inhibit the enzyme that breaks down neurotransmitters, and block the transport of neurotransmitters out of the synpase

91
Q

How are drugs able to bind to neurotransmitter receptors on post-synaptic membranes?

A

The drugs have a similar shape to the neurotransmitter, and are therefore complementary to the receptor

92
Q

Describe the action of drugs that bind to post-synaptic receptors

A

When the drug binds to the post-synpatic receptors, it prevents the neurotransmitter binding

93
Q

How are drugs able to bind to enzymes that break down neurotransmitters?

A

They are a similar shape to neurotransmiiter, and are therefore complementary to the enzyme’s active site

94
Q

Describe the action of drugs that bind to post-synaptic receptors

A

When the drug binds to the enzyme, it prevents to enzyme breaking down the neurotransmitter. More of the neurotransmitter can bind to the post-synpatic receptors

95
Q

Describe the action of drugs that bind to post-synaptic receptors

A

They bind to the drug transporters, so more drug remains in the synpase to bind to the post-synpatic receptors

96
Q

Muscles content after card 96

A
97
Q

What are muscles comprised of?

A

Many muscle fibres

98
Q

What are muscle fibres comprised of?

A

Many myofibrils

99
Q

What are myofibrils comprised of?

A

Many sarcomeres attached end to end

100
Q

What is the cytoplasm in muscle fibres called?

A

Sarcoplasm

101
Q

What is the membrane in muscle fibres called?

A

Sarcolemma

102
Q

What is the reticulum in muscle fibres called?

A

Sarcoplasmic reticulum

103
Q

Name the organelle that connects the sarcolemma and the sarcoplasmic reticulum

A

T-tubules

104
Q

Name the two proteins sarcomeres are made from

A

Actin and myosin

105
Q

Describe the structure of actin.

A

Thinner and consists of two strands twisted around one another.

106
Q

Describe the structure of myosin.

A

Many myosin tails wind together to form a myosin filament. Each myosin filament has a head.

107
Q

Why are muscles striated?

A

They are dark bands where the actin and myosin overlap, and light bands where they don’t

108
Q

Once sarcomere is measured in between which two lines?

A

Between two adjacent Z lines.

109
Q

What is the light band called?

A

I band.

110
Q

Which protein is in the light band?

A

Actin

111
Q

What is the line in the centre of the I band called?

A

Z line

112
Q

What is the dark band called?

A

The A band

113
Q

Which proteins are in the A band?

A

Actin and myosin. It’s where they overlap.

114
Q

What is the centre of that band called?

A

The H zone.

115
Q

Which protein is found in the H zone?

A

Myosin.

116
Q

What happens to the I-Band when a muscle contracts?

A

It becomes narrower.

117
Q

What happens to the Z-lines when a muscle contracts?

A

They move closer together and the sarcomere shortens.

118
Q

What happens to the H-zone when a muscle contracts?

A

It becomes narrower / disappears

119
Q

What happens to the width of the A-Band?

A

Remains the same width.

120
Q

When a muscle contracts, will the actin and myosin overlap more or less?

A

More

121
Q

What is the sliding filament mechanism?

A

During contraction, the actin filaments are pulled past the myosin filaments, reducing the length of each sarcomere

122
Q

Name the three proteins the thin (actin) filament is made from

A

Actin, troponin and tropomyosin

123
Q

Which protein has many myosin binding sites along it?

A

Actin

124
Q

Which protein is troponin bound to?

A

Tropomyosin

125
Q

At rest, which protein is blocking the myosin binding sites on the actin?

A

Tropomyosin

126
Q

What do you call a synpase between a motor neurone and a muscle fibre?

A

A neuromuscular junction

127
Q

Which neurotransmitter is always used in neuromuscular junctions?

A

Acetylcholine

128
Q

In a neuromuscular junction, where are the ligand-gated Na+ channels that the acetylcholine binds to?

A

In the sarcolemma

129
Q

What the does the binding of acetylcholine to the ligand-gated Na+ channels in the sarcolemma cause?

A

Depolarisation of the sarcolemma, the t-tubules and the sarcoplasmic reticulum

130
Q

What does the depolarisation of the sarcoplasmic reticulum cause?

A

Ca2+ to diffuse from the sarcoplasmic reticulum into the myofibril (through the sarcoplasm)

131
Q

Once the Ca2+ are in the sarcoplasm of the myofibril, what do they bind to?

A

The tropnonin

132
Q

Describe the effect of Ca2+ binding to troponin

A

It causes the shape of troponin to change causing it to move, exposing the myosin binding sites on the actin

133
Q

Which part of the myosin filaments bind to the actin?

A

Myosin heads

134
Q

After the myosin heads have bound to the actin, one ATP molcule is broken down to release energy. What is this energy used for?

A

For the myosin heads to bend, pulling the actin past the myosin. This is called the power stroke

135
Q

After the power stroke, a new ATP molecule binds to the myosin head. What does this cause?

A

The mysoin head to detach and re-set

136
Q

Name the two types of muscle fibres.

A

Slow-twitch and Fast-twitch fibres.

137
Q

Which type of muscle fibre carries out more aerobic respiration?

A

Slow twitch muscle fibres

138
Q

Which type of muscle fibre is used for endurance and posture?

A

Slow twitch muscle fibres

139
Q

Describe the contractions in slow twitch muscle fibres

A

Slow and less powerful, but last longer

140
Q

What two things are slow twitch muscles adapted for?

A

To increase the rate of aerobic respiration and to prevent the build up of lactic acid

141
Q

Why are slow twitch muscle fibres surrounded by many capillaries?

A

To supply lots of oxygen for a high rate of aerobic respiration

142
Q

Why do slow twitch muscle fibres have more mitochondria?

A

To produce more ATP

143
Q

Which type of muscle fibre carries out more anaerobic respiration?

A

Fast twitch muscle fibres

144
Q

Describe the contractions in fast twitch muscle fibres

A

Rapid and powerful, but over a short period of time

145
Q

How are the myosin filaments adapted for more powerful contractions in fast twitch muscle fibres?

A

They are thicker and more numerous

146
Q

Why is there a lots of glycogen in fast twitch muscle fibres?

A

To supply lots of glucose for anaerobic respiration

147
Q

Which type of muscle fibre contains more phosphocreatine?

A

Fast twitch muscle fibres

148
Q

What is the function of phosphocreatine?

A

To provide phosphate to make ATP in anaerobic conditions

149
Q

How is creatine regenerated into phosphocreatine in aerobic conditions?

A

By hydrolysing ATP into ADP and Pi, and using the phosphate to regenerate creatine into phosphocreatine

Biology (26 decks)

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