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Biology > 6.1.2 Cloning and Biotechnology > Flashcards

6.1.2 Cloning and Biotechnology Flashcards

1
Q

Clone

A

extact genetically identical copy

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2
Q

how do organisms make a natural copy of themselves

A

by asexual reproduction

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3
Q

examples of natural plant clones

A

runners
bulbs
tuber
corm
rhisome

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4
Q

Runners or stolen

A

projections that run across the ground that often contain a small clone of the plant
usually goes far enough away to allow the new plant to grow
- strawberry and spider plants

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5
Q

Bulbs

A

fleshy group of tissue underground
usually at the bottom of a stem
- onion, garlic, daffodils

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6
Q

Tuber

A

enlarged structure usually of the roots that are used for storage
- potato, crrots, root vegetbable,sweet potato

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7
Q

Corm

A

simular to tuber but usually used to survive extreme weather conditions eg. drought

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8
Q

Rhisome

A

swollen root area that often grow horizontally underground and allows new shoots to grow from them
- bamboos

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9
Q

vegetative progogation

A

natural cloning in plants

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10
Q

Artificial Cloning

A

doesnt happen naturally

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11
Q

Taking cutting method

A

cut shoot or root from plant
pot withcompost and make hole
add rooting powder
leave plant in warm moist place
eventually will grow into new genetically identical plant

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12
Q

why when taking a cutting do you use root or stem

A

it contains the meristem

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13
Q

why do you add rooting powder to the compost containing the cutting of the plant

A

contains plant growth hormones
axons and gibberelins

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14
Q

tissue culture method

A

carrot tissues are broken apart and single cells extracted
sterilise explant
explant is grown in nutrient medium
callus forms
transfer to root inducing medium and change ratio of auxins and cytokines so callus grows shoots
micropropagation of plants

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15
Q

what is an explant

A

small number of cells

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16
Q

example of a nutrient medium

A

agar jelly

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17
Q

what do you sterilise explant with

A

bleach

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18
Q

what is a callus

A

group of undifferentiated cells multiplied by mitosis

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19
Q

examples of natural animal cloning

A

identical twins
greenfly or aphid
starfish

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20
Q

artificial animal cloning methods

A

embryo splitting
somatic cell nuclear transfer

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21
Q

method of embryo splitting

A

embryo has divided by mitosis to form bundle of cells
chemically break up the embryo into individual cells or small groups
cells divide by mitosis to form new embryos - all identical
embryos are implanted into host mothers
all offspring are genetically identical to each other

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22
Q

where are steps 1,2,3 occur for embryo splitting

A

in a lab

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23
Q

method for somatic cell nuclear therapy

A

take somatic cell as it contains all the DNA
remove nucleus from somatic cell
remove egg cell from another sheep
transfer nucleus into egg cell by electroporation
egg is “fertilised” as contains full set of DNA so will begin to reproduce by mitosis
host mother is inseminated with egg
clone of derival of somatic cell

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24
Q

what is electroporation

A

electric shock to make the membrane more porous so nucleus can be absorbed

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25
enucleation
nucleus removed from somatic cell
26
what is a somatic cell
a body cell
27
steps to cheese-making
-bacteria feed on lactose in milk changing the taste ,texture and inhibiting growth of bacteria that make milk go off - milk is pasteurised - heated to 95 degrees for 20 secs to kill most natural bacteria - mixed with bacteria culture and chymosin enzyme and kept until milk curds and liquid whey - cheese curds are cut and cooked in whey then sterilised and drained through moulds and put in steel drums and pressed and left to dry - cottage cheese curds and separated from whey and packaged
28
method for making yoghurt
bacteria produce extracellular polymers that give smooth thick texture - skimmed milk powder is added to milk and pasteurised, homogenised and cooled to 47 degrees - milk has 1:1 ratio with 2 types of bacteria and incubated at 45 degrees for 4-5 hrs yogurt is then put into cartons at 10 degrees
29
bioremediation
micro- organisms are used to breakdown pollutant and contaminants in soil or water
30
techniques for bioremediation
using natural organisms GM micro organisms
31
1st stage of producing penecillin
fungus grows
32
2nd stage of producing penecilin
produces penecilin
33
3rd stage of producing penecilin
drug is extracted from medium and purified
34
producing penecilin conditions
uses small fragments to help maintain O2 levels mixture is continuously stirred to keep it oxygenated rich nutrient medium - contains buffer to maintain pH 6.5 bioreacts are maintained at about 25-27 degrees
35
why was supply of insulin erratic when produced from cattle and pigs
depended on demand for meat as less animals killed= less insulin but same number of people needed it
36
problems with insulin from pigs and cattle
some people are allergic peak activity was hours after it injected so hard to judge when to eat some religions prohibit pig products
37
why do you have strict health and safety rules when culturing bacteria in a lab
risk of mutations could cause microbe to be pathogenic population could become contaminated with pathogenic microbes from the atmosphere
38
correct conditions for microbes to grow
oxygen levels/CO2 levels pH damp nutrients- carbohydrates and mineral ions space to grow into
39
what can you grow bacteria in in a lab
broth - liquid medium agar - solid medium
40
method for growing bacteria in a broth
take up sample in sterile pipette transfer into broth - use aseptic technique leave in correct conditions to grow use colorimeter to measure absorbance of liquid more bacteria particles= more light will be absorbed
41
method for growing bacteria in agar
take up sample in sterile pipette transfer to agar - use aseptic technique either spread or streak plate leave in correct conditions to grow estimate population by counting colonies
42
what assumption is made when counting colonies of bacteria to work out population size
1 colony is created from 1 original bacteria
43
how to spread a plate
add sample using spreader twist top bit in one direction and back - creates even layer of micro organisms across the plate
44
how to streak a plate
dip loop into bacteria sample on one side of plate and move loop across in strips then spread this out -spread micro organisms out in smaller concentrations each time
45
1st phase of bacteria growth curve
LAG phase small number in populations- takes time to increase numbers low population growth small incline in graph
46
2nd phase of bacteria growth curve
Log/ exponential phase - rapid growth -steep incline
47
3rd phase of bacteria growth curve
stationary phase greater competition plateau in graph birth rate = death rate
48
4th phase of bacteria growth curve
death phase/ decline phase death rate > birth rate decline in population
49
what factors limit exponential growth
nutrient availability O2 levels temperature change build up of waste products-could be toxic changes in pH- build up of CO2
50
large scale production of bacteria
cultured in fermenters growing conditions in fermenter are manipulated and controlled to be as precise as possible
51
batch culture of bacteria
starter population is mixed with specific quantity of nutrient solution allow to grow for fixed period products removed fermentation tank emptied
52
examples of batch culture
penicillin production enzyme production
53
continuous culture of bacteria
nutrients are added and products removed from fermentation tank at regular intervals
54
examples of continuous culture
insulin production from GM E.Coli production of mycoproteins - meat substitute
55
what does metabolism produce
new cells and cell components chemicals waste products
56
metabolites definition
substances produced during cell processes
57
primary metabolites
produced by organism as part of its normal growth production of them matches growth in population produced at highest rate in Log phase
58
examples of primary metabolites
amino acids proteins enzymes
59
what type of culture produces best conditions for primary metabolites
continuous culture
60
secondary metabolites
substance produced by particular growth phase - no direct involvement in fundamental metabolite process - begins after main growth phase in micro organism - usually produced when competition is at its greatest - occurs at stationary phase - more competition
61
what type of culture produces best conditions for secondary metabolites
batch culture
62
immobilised enzymes
trapping enzymes either on or in something
63
advantages of immobilising enzymes
can be reused many times product is enzymes free so no extra cost filtering it out more resistant to being denatures by changes in temp and pH
64
methods for immobilising enzymes
gel entrapment adsorption/carrier bound covalent bonding/cross linked membrane separation
65
gel entrapment example
lactase in alginate to break down lactose in milk into glucose and galactose
66
stages of gel entrapment
enzyme solution and sodium alginate mixed droplets of solution are added to calcium chloride(aq) droplets turn into bead which contains enzyme
67
why are beads best for gel entrapment instead of one bigger block
beads make larger surface area for enzyme to be in contact with substrate
68
step of making lactose free milk with immobilising enzyme beads
tightly pack beads in column liquid substrate can be trickled over beads product trickles out of bottom of column product is collected and purified
69
advantages of using isolated enzymes
less wasteful more efficient - work at much higher concs more specific - no unwanted enzymes present maximise efficiency - can be given ideal conditions for maximum product formation less downstream processing- pure product is produced
70
what type of enzymes are isolated enzymes used in industrial processes and why are they used
extracellular - secreted so easy to isolate and use -microorganisms produce very few extracellular enzymes so they're easy to identify and isolate - much more robust than intracellular so adapted to cope with greater variations of temp and pH
71
disadvantages of immobilised enzymes
reduced efficiency - immobilising an enzyme may reduce its activity rate higher initial costs of materials- more expensive than free enzymes of micro organisms higher initial cost of bioreactor more technical issues - reactors that use them are more complex than simple fermenters
72
advantages of adsorption
simple and cheap can be used with many different processes enzymes are very accessible to substrate and so activity is virtually unchanged
73
disadvantage of adsorption
enzymes can be lost from matrix relatively easily
74
advantages of covalent bonding
cost varies enzymes are strongly bound - unlikely to be lost enzymes very accessible to substrate pH and substrate concentration have very little effect on enzyme activity
75
disadvantage on covalent bonding for immobilising enzymes
cost varies active site of enzyme may be modified in the process making it less effective
76
advantages of entrapment of immobilising enzymes
widely applicable to different processes
77
disadvantages of entrapment of immobilising enzymes
may be expensive can be difficult to entrap diffusion of substrate to and product from active site can be slow and hold up reaction effect on enzyme activity is very variable- depends on matrix
78
advantages of membrane entrapment of immobilising enzymes
simple small effect on enzyme activity widely applicable to different processes
79
disadvantages of membrane entrapment of immobilising enzymes
expensive diffusion of substrate to and product from active site can be slow and hold up reaction
80
covalent bond enzymes
enzymes are bonded to a support or to each other and a support
81
adsorption enzyme
enzymes are mixed with immobilising support stuck on outside of support - beads or clay
82
entrapment enzymes
enzyme trapped in natural state in gel bead reaction rate can be reduced as substrate needs to get through barrier
83
membrane entrapment enzyme
substrate separated from mixture by partially permeable membrane

Biology (25 decks)

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