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Biology > 6.1.2 Cloning and Biotechnology > Flashcards

6.1.2 Cloning and Biotechnology Flashcards

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1
Q

Clone

A

extact genetically identical copy

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2
Q

how do organisms make a natural copy of themselves

A

by asexual reproduction

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3
Q

examples of natural plant clones

A

runners
bulbs
tuber
corm
rhisome

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4
Q

Runners or stolen

A

projections that run across the ground that often contain a small clone of the plant
usually goes far enough away to allow the new plant to grow
- strawberry and spider plants

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5
Q

Bulbs

A

fleshy group of tissue underground
usually at the bottom of a stem
- onion, garlic, daffodils

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6
Q

Tuber

A

enlarged structure usually of the roots that are used for storage
- potato, crrots, root vegetbable,sweet potato

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7
Q

Corm

A

simular to tuber but usually used to survive extreme weather conditions eg. drought

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8
Q

Rhisome

A

swollen root area that often grow horizontally underground and allows new shoots to grow from them
- bamboos

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9
Q

vegetative progogation

A

natural cloning in plants

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10
Q

Artificial Cloning

A

doesnt happen naturally

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11
Q

Taking cutting method

A

cut shoot or root from plant
pot withcompost and make hole
add rooting powder
leave plant in warm moist place
eventually will grow into new genetically identical plant

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12
Q

why when taking a cutting do you use root or stem

A

it contains the meristem

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13
Q

why do you add rooting powder to the compost containing the cutting of the plant

A

contains plant growth hormones
axons and gibberelins

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14
Q

tissue culture method

A

carrot tissues are broken apart and single cells extracted
sterilise explant
explant is grown in nutrient medium
callus forms
transfer to root inducing medium and change ratio of auxins and cytokines so callus grows shoots
micropropagation of plants

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15
Q

what is an explant

A

small number of cells

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16
Q

example of a nutrient medium

A

agar jelly

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17
Q

what do you sterilise explant with

A

bleach

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18
Q

what is a callus

A

group of undifferentiated cells multiplied by mitosis

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19
Q

examples of natural animal cloning

A

identical twins
greenfly or aphid
starfish

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20
Q

artificial animal cloning methods

A

embryo splitting
somatic cell nuclear transfer

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21
Q

method of embryo splitting

A

embryo has divided by mitosis to form bundle of cells
chemically break up the embryo into individual cells or small groups
cells divide by mitosis to form new embryos - all identical
embryos are implanted into host mothers
all offspring are genetically identical to each other

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22
Q

where are steps 1,2,3 occur for embryo splitting

A

in a lab

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23
Q

method for somatic cell nuclear therapy

A

take somatic cell as it contains all the DNA
remove nucleus from somatic cell
remove egg cell from another sheep
transfer nucleus into egg cell by electroporation
egg is “fertilised” as contains full set of DNA so will begin to reproduce by mitosis
host mother is inseminated with egg
clone of derival of somatic cell

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24
Q

what is electroporation

A

electric shock to make the membrane more porous so nucleus can be absorbed

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25
Q

enucleation

A

nucleus removed from somatic cell

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26
Q

what is a somatic cell

A

a body cell

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27
Q

steps to cheese-making

A

-bacteria feed on lactose in milk changing the taste ,texture and inhibiting growth of bacteria that make milk go off
- milk is pasteurised - heated to 95 degrees for 20 secs to kill most natural bacteria
- mixed with bacteria culture and chymosin enzyme and kept until milk curds and liquid whey
- cheese curds are cut and cooked in whey then sterilised and drained through moulds and put in steel drums and pressed and left to dry
- cottage cheese curds and separated from whey and packaged

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28
Q

method for making yoghurt

A

bacteria produce extracellular polymers that give smooth thick texture
- skimmed milk powder is added to milk and pasteurised, homogenised and cooled to 47 degrees
- milk has 1:1 ratio with 2 types of bacteria and incubated at 45 degrees for 4-5 hrs
yogurt is then put into cartons at 10 degrees

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29
Q

bioremediation

A

micro- organisms are used to breakdown pollutant and contaminants in soil or water

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30
Q

techniques for bioremediation

A

using natural organisms
GM micro organisms

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31
Q

1st stage of producing penecillin

A

fungus grows

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32
Q

2nd stage of producing penecilin

A

produces penecilin

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33
Q

3rd stage of producing penecilin

A

drug is extracted from medium and purified

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34
Q

producing penecilin conditions

A

uses small fragments to help maintain O2 levels
mixture is continuously stirred to keep it oxygenated
rich nutrient medium - contains buffer to maintain pH 6.5
bioreacts are maintained at about 25-27 degrees

35
Q

why was supply of insulin erratic when produced from cattle and pigs

A

depended on demand for meat as less animals killed= less insulin but same number of people needed it

36
Q

problems with insulin from pigs and cattle

A

some people are allergic
peak activity was hours after it injected so hard to judge when to eat
some religions prohibit pig products

37
Q

why do you have strict health and safety rules when culturing bacteria in a lab

A

risk of mutations could cause microbe to be pathogenic
population could become contaminated with pathogenic microbes from the atmosphere

38
Q

correct conditions for microbes to grow

A

oxygen levels/CO2 levels
pH
damp
nutrients- carbohydrates and mineral ions
space to grow into

39
Q

what can you grow bacteria in in a lab

A

broth - liquid medium
agar - solid medium

40
Q

method for growing bacteria in a broth

A

take up sample in sterile pipette
transfer into broth - use aseptic technique
leave in correct conditions to grow
use colorimeter to measure absorbance of liquid
more bacteria particles= more light will be absorbed

41
Q

method for growing bacteria in agar

A

take up sample in sterile pipette
transfer to agar - use aseptic technique
either spread or streak plate
leave in correct conditions to grow
estimate population by counting colonies

42
Q

what assumption is made when counting colonies of bacteria to work out population size

A

1 colony is created from 1 original bacteria

43
Q

how to spread a plate

A

add sample using spreader
twist top bit in one direction and back
- creates even layer of micro organisms across the plate

44
Q

how to streak a plate

A

dip loop into bacteria sample
on one side of plate and move loop across in strips
then spread this out
-spread micro organisms out in smaller concentrations each time

45
Q

1st phase of bacteria growth curve

A

LAG phase
small number in populations- takes time to increase numbers
low population growth
small incline in graph

46
Q

2nd phase of bacteria growth curve

A

Log/ exponential phase
- rapid growth
-steep incline

47
Q

3rd phase of bacteria growth curve

A

stationary phase
greater competition
plateau in graph
birth rate = death rate

48
Q

4th phase of bacteria growth curve

A

death phase/ decline phase
death rate > birth rate
decline in population

49
Q

what factors limit exponential growth

A

nutrient availability
O2 levels
temperature change
build up of waste products-could be toxic
changes in pH- build up of CO2

50
Q

large scale production of bacteria

A

cultured in fermenters
growing conditions in fermenter are manipulated and controlled to be as precise as possible

51
Q

batch culture of bacteria

A

starter population is mixed with specific quantity of nutrient solution
allow to grow for fixed period
products removed
fermentation tank emptied

52
Q

examples of batch culture

A

penicillin production
enzyme production

53
Q

continuous culture of bacteria

A

nutrients are added and products removed from fermentation tank at regular intervals

54
Q

examples of continuous culture

A

insulin production from GM E.Coli
production of mycoproteins - meat substitute

55
Q

what does metabolism produce

A

new cells and cell components
chemicals
waste products

56
Q

metabolites definition

A

substances produced during cell processes

57
Q

primary metabolites

A

produced by organism as part of its normal growth
production of them matches growth in population
produced at highest rate in Log phase

58
Q

examples of primary metabolites

A

amino acids
proteins
enzymes

59
Q

what type of culture produces best conditions for primary metabolites

A

continuous culture

60
Q

secondary metabolites

A

substance produced by particular growth phase
- no direct involvement in fundamental metabolite process
- begins after main growth phase in micro organism
- usually produced when competition is at its greatest
- occurs at stationary phase - more competition

61
Q

what type of culture produces best conditions for secondary metabolites

A

batch culture

62
Q

immobilised enzymes

A

trapping enzymes either on or in something

63
Q

advantages of immobilising enzymes

A

can be reused many times
product is enzymes free so no extra cost filtering it out
more resistant to being denatures by changes in temp and pH

64
Q

methods for immobilising enzymes

A

gel entrapment
adsorption/carrier bound
covalent bonding/cross linked
membrane separation

65
Q

gel entrapment example

A

lactase in alginate to break down lactose in milk into glucose and galactose

66
Q

stages of gel entrapment

A

enzyme solution and sodium alginate mixed
droplets of solution are added to calcium chloride(aq)
droplets turn into bead which contains enzyme

67
Q

why are beads best for gel entrapment instead of one bigger block

A

beads make larger surface area for enzyme to be in contact with substrate

68
Q

step of making lactose free milk with immobilising enzyme beads

A

tightly pack beads in column
liquid substrate can be trickled over beads
product trickles out of bottom of column
product is collected and purified

69
Q

advantages of using isolated enzymes

A

less wasteful
more efficient - work at much higher concs
more specific - no unwanted enzymes present
maximise efficiency - can be given ideal conditions for maximum product formation
less downstream processing- pure product is produced

70
Q

what type of enzymes are isolated enzymes used in industrial processes and why are they used

A

extracellular
- secreted so easy to isolate and use
-microorganisms produce very few extracellular enzymes so they’re easy to identify and isolate
- much more robust than intracellular so adapted to cope with greater variations of temp and pH

71
Q

disadvantages of immobilised enzymes

A

reduced efficiency - immobilising an enzyme may reduce its activity rate
higher initial costs of materials- more expensive than free enzymes of micro organisms
higher initial cost of bioreactor
more technical issues - reactors that use them are more complex than simple fermenters

72
Q

advantages of adsorption

A

simple and cheap
can be used with many different processes
enzymes are very accessible to substrate and so activity is virtually unchanged

73
Q

disadvantage of adsorption

A

enzymes can be lost from matrix relatively easily

74
Q

advantages of covalent bonding

A

cost varies
enzymes are strongly bound - unlikely to be lost
enzymes very accessible to substrate
pH and substrate concentration have very little effect on enzyme activity

75
Q

disadvantage on covalent bonding for immobilising enzymes

A

cost varies
active site of enzyme may be modified in the process making it less effective

76
Q

advantages of entrapment of immobilising enzymes

A

widely applicable to different processes

77
Q

disadvantages of entrapment of immobilising enzymes

A

may be expensive
can be difficult to entrap
diffusion of substrate to and product from active site can be slow and hold up reaction
effect on enzyme activity is very variable- depends on matrix

78
Q

advantages of membrane entrapment of immobilising enzymes

A

simple
small effect on enzyme activity
widely applicable to different processes

79
Q

disadvantages of membrane entrapment of immobilising enzymes

A

expensive
diffusion of substrate to and product from active site can be slow and hold up reaction

80
Q

covalent bond enzymes

A

enzymes are bonded to a support or to each other and a support

81
Q

adsorption enzyme

A

enzymes are mixed with immobilising support
stuck on outside of support - beads or clay

82
Q

entrapment enzymes

A

enzyme trapped in natural state in gel bead
reaction rate can be reduced as substrate needs to get through barrier

83
Q

membrane entrapment enzyme

A

substrate separated from mixture by partially permeable membrane

Biology (25 decks)

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