6. Research Methods (Experiments)

Question 1

What is an aim?

Answer 1

The general statement of what a researcher intends to investigate, the purpose of the study

Question 2

What is a hypothesis?

Answer 2

A clear, precise, testable statement which states the relationship between the variables to be investigated

Question 3

What is operationalisation?

Answer 3

Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured

Question 4

What are extraneous variables?

Answer 4

Any variable, other than the independent variable that may effect the dependent variable if not controlled

Question 5

What are confounding variables?

Answer 5

A variable that varies systematically with independent variable (not the IV but effects the DV)

Question 6

What are demand characteristics?

Answer 6

Any clue from the researcher/research situation that may be interpreted by participants, revealing purpose of investigation

Question 7

What are investigator effects?

Answer 7

Any effect of the investigators behaviour (conscious or unconscious) on the research outcome

Question 8

What is standardisation?

Answer 8

Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study

Question 9

What are the 2 types of hypothesis?

Answer 9

• Directional: States the direction of the difference or relationship
• Non-directional: Does not state the direction of the difference or relationship

Question 10

What is an experimental method?

Answer 10

Involves the manipulation of the IV to measure the effects on the DV

Question 11

What is randomisation?

Answer 11

The use of chance methods to control the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of experimental conditions

Question 12

What are the 3 experimental designs?

Answer 12

1. Independent groups: participants allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition
2. Repeated measures: all participants take part in all conditions of experiment
3. Matched pairs: participants in different conditions are paired together on variables relevant to the experiment

Question 13

What is counterbalancing?

Answer 13

An attempt to control the effects of order in a repeated measures design

Question 14

AO3 for independent groups

Answer 14

1. Less influence from order effects
2. Participant variables: variables differ between different groups, change in DV may be due to participants rather than effect of IV (confounding)
3. Less economical: twice as many participants needed to produce equivalent data to repeated measures, increased time/money on recruitment

Question 15

AO3 for repeated measures

Answer 15

1. Order effects: repeating two tasks could create boredom/fatigue, deterioration in performance in second task HOWEVER performance may improve due to effects of practice, better performance on second task (confounding)
2. Demand characteristics: participants figure out aim of study when experiencing conditions

Question 16

AO3 for matched pairs

Answer 16

1. Less influence from demand characteristics and order effects
2. Less economical: matching may be time-consuming and expensive

Question 17

What are the 4 types of experiment?

Answer 17

1. Laboratory experiment
2. Field experiment
3. Natural experiement
4. Quasi-experiement

Question 18

Describe a laboratory experiment

Answer 18

An experiment that occurs in a controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV

Question 19

Describe a field experiment

Answer 19

An experiment that takes place in a natural setting within the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV

Question 20

Describe a natural experiment

Answer 20

An experiment which the change in IV is not brought about by the researcher but would have happened even if the researcher was not present

Question 21

Describe a quasi-experiment

Answer 21

A study where the IV has not been determined by anyone, the variables simply exist e.g age

Question 22

AO3 for laboratory experiment

Answer 22

- Highly controlled: lab experiments have high control over confounding and extraneous variables, certainty that effect on DV is a result of IV manipulation
- Easily replicable: result of high control, allows to check validity of results to ensure it is not one-off

- Lack generalisability: environment is artificial, does not reflect everyday life, low external validity

Question 23

AO3 for natural experiment

Answer 23

- Opportunities for research: insight into areas not undertaken due to practical/ethical reasons
- High external validity

- Naturally occurring events are rare (low generalisability)
- Participants not randomly allocated (uncertain whether IV affected DV, may be due to differences)

Question 24

AO3 for field experiment

Answer 24

- High mundane realism: more natural environment, produce valid and authentic behaviour as participants unaware they are being studied

- Loss of control over variables (confounding and extraneous): DV more difficult to establish, precise replication not possible
- Ethical issues: participants unaware they are being studied, cannot consent, lack of privacy

Question 25

AO3 for quasi-experiment

Answer 25

- Controlled conditions (replication, objectivity) - Confounding variables (cannot randomly allocate participants) - Cannot claim IV has caused change (IV is not manipulated by experimenter)

Question 26

How do confounding variables affect the findings of a study?

Answer 26

Difficult to tell if change in dependent variable is due to IV or confounding variable

Question 27

What is the difference between population and sample?

Answer 27

- Population: A large group of people who are the focus of the researchers interest - Sample: A smaller group of people drawn from the target population

Question 28

What is bias in reference to sampling?

Answer 28

When certain groups are over or under represented within a chosen sample

Question 29

What are the 5 sampling techniques?

Answer 29

- Random - Stratified - Systematic - Opportunity - Volunteer

Question 30

What is random sampling + a strength and limitation?

Answer 30

- When all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected - Strength: unbiased - Limitation: difficult/time-consuming to conduct

Question 31

What is stratified sampling + a strength and limitation?

Answer 31

- When the composition of the sample reflects the proportion of people in certain sub-groups within the target/wider population - Strength: representative sample (generalisability) - Limitation: complete representation impossible (cannot reflect all ways people are different)

Question 32

What is systematic sampling + a strength and limitation?

Answer 32

- When every nth member of a target population is selected - Strength: objective (researcher has no influence over sample) - Limitation: time-consuming

Question 33

What is opportunity sampling + a strength and limitation?

Answer 33

- When researchers decide to select anyone who is willing and available - Strength: convenient (cheap, less time consuming) - Limitation: bias (unrepresentative of target population, researcher has complete control)

Question 34

What is volunteer sampling + a strength and limitation?

Answer 34

- When participants select themselves to be part of the sample - Strength: Less time-consuming - Limitation: volunteer bias (may attract certain volunteers who are curious/wants to please researcher)

Question 35

What are ethical issues?

Answer 35

A conflict between the rights of participants and the goals of a researcher to produce valid/authentic data

Question 36

What are the 4 main ethical issues?

Answer 36

**- Informed consent** (making participants aware of the aims, procedure and their rights so they can make an informed judgement) **- Deception** (deliberately misleading/withholding information at any stage) **- Protection from harm** (protection from physical and psychological harm) **- Privacy/confidentiality** (participants have the right to control their personal information)

Question 37

How can the issue of informed consent be dealt with in an investigation?

Answer 37

- Participants required to sign a consent letter detailing all relevant information which may affect their decision to partake

Question 38

How can the issue of protection from harm + deception be dealt with in an investigation?

Answer 38

- Participants given a full debrief (awareness of true aims/details) - Right to withdraw/withhold data - Counselling

Question 39

How can the issue of privacy/confidentiality be dealt with in an investigation?

Answer 39

- Anonymity

Question 40

What is a pilot study?

Answer 40

A small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted

Question 41

What are 2 aims of pilot studies?

Answer 41

- Allows the researcher to check that procedures, materials, measuring scales are working - Allows the researcher to make necessary changes/modifications

Question 42

What are single-blind procedures?

Answer 42

When certain data e.g aims/conditions of the experiment are withheld from participants at the beginning of the study

Question 43

What are double-blind procedures?

Answer 43

When neither the participants nor the researcher who conducts the study is aware of the investigations aims

Question 44

How are stratified samples allocated?

Answer 44

- Researcher identifies different strata that make up population - Proportions needed for representative sample are calculated - Participants that make up each stratum selected using random sampling

Question 45

What is a sampling frame?

Answer 45

A list which the people in a target population are sorted into (used for systematic sampling)