4.2.3 - Research Methods Flashcards
definition of operationalisation
To make behaviour measurable so that it can be objectively recorded
Definition of experimental aims
A statement of what the researchers intend to find out in a study:
- they are clear and detailed
-and outline the purpose of the study
Definition of hypothesis
A precise and testable statement of prediction about the outcome of an experiment
What are the 4 types of hypotheses
-experimental
-null
-directional
-non directional
What is an experimental hypothesis
Predicts that there will be a difference or a relationship between the conditions with g the experiment
What is a null hypothesis
It predicts that there will be no difference or relationships
What is a directional hypothesis
A one tailed prediction that states which group will do better
What is a non-directional hypothesis
A two ailed prediction that stated that there will be a difference or relationship, but doesn’t state which group will do better
What should a good hypotheses include?
-all conditions are mentioned
- has to be operationalised (measurable)
-in either the future or the past tense
-clear whether it is looking for a difference or a relationship
What are extraneous variables
Any variable that could affect the depended to variable that is not the independent variable
What are the 4 types of extraneous variables
- situational
- participant
- investigator effects
- demand characteristics
What are situational variables? (+ egs)
Features of a research situation that may influence the participants behaviour, egs):
- heat
- time of day
- order effects
How to control situational variables
Standardise everything by keeping everything the same
Counterbalancing - ABBA
What are participant variables
The ways in which each participant varies from the other and how the results could be collected:
Eg. Mood
IQ
anxiety
concentration
How to control participant variables
Depends on the experimental design
What are Investigator effects
When the experimenter unconsciously conveys to participants how they should behave ( experiment or bias)
However the experimenter is often unaware of the influence that they cause - but it has an effect nevertheless
Methods to control investigator bias
- double blind design
- Inter-rater reliability
How is double blind design used to reduce investigator effects
Both the participant and the person conducting the experiment are unaware of the aims and the hypothesis
The experimenter is unaware of the variable that the participants are involved in
How does inter-rater reliability reduce investigator effects
Independent raters rate the same behaviour as researchers and check for agreement
What are demand characteristics
They occur when the participant knows or guesses the experimenters intentions and therefore change their behaviour accordingly
How to control demand characteristics?
- single bling design
-deception
How is single blind design used to reduce demand characteristics
The participant is unaware of which condition they are in, and are unaware of the research aims also. this prevents participants from seeking clues about the aims and reacting to them.
How is deception used to control demand characteristics
Lying about the aims of the study and using distracting questions
What is a confounding variable
When an extraneous variable is not controlled by the experimenter, therefore damage the validity of the experiment
What is the experimental design
The way in which participants are allocated to different conditions of an experiment
What are the three types of experimental design
- independent groups
- repeated measures
- matched pairs
Describe the independent groups method (experimental design)
Different articipants take part in different conditions and are randomly allocated to each condition.
Evaluate independent groups
+ avoids ordering effects as people only participate in one condition
+ avoids demand characteristics as people are unlikely to guess aims
- more people are needed therefore is more time consuming
- differences between participants in the groups may affect the results (participant variables)
What is repeated measures design (experimental design)
Every participant takes part in every condition and their results are compared to themselves.
Evaluate repeated measures
+ the same participant is used in each condition so participant variables ate reduced
+ fewer people are needed
- there may be order effects
- participants may be able to guess the aims so demand characteristics may occur
What is matched pairs (experimental design)
Different but similar participants are used each condition. They are matched based on variables relevant to the study.
Evaluate matched pairs
+ reduces participant variables as the pairs should have similar characteristics and abilities
+ avoids order effects so counterbalances isn’t necessary
- if one participant drops out you love 2 peoples data
- very time consuming to find closely matched pairs
- impossible to match people exactly
Definition of a sample
The group of people who take pat in the research, they are drawn from the target population and is assumed to be representative of the population so that the findings can be generalised
Definition of target population
The desired sub-group of the population to be studied
Definition of population
A large group of individuals who the researcher may be interested in studying
Describe and evaluate random sampling
When all participants have an equal chance of being selected:
+ no investigator bias
- chance that it will not be representative of the target population
- time consuming and can be difficult to conduct
Describe and evaluate opportunity sampling
When the people that are available at the time and are willing to take part are used as the sample:
+ quick and easy way to find participants
- researcher bias could occur as the researcher asks people who look helpful to take part
- unrepresentative of the target population
Describe and evaluate a volunteer sample
When participants put themselves forward to be apart of the study ( self- selection ) :
+ easy and requires minimal input
+ produces more committed individuals which is good if the investigation is long or boring
+ no experimenter bias
- the same type of person may volunteer so may not be representative
Describe and evaluate systematic sampling
When every nth member of the target population is selected to take part:
+ avoids researcher bias as they cannot change the order of the system
- time consuming and can be difficult to achieve
- no guarantee that it is truly representative
Describe stratified sampling
When the researcher identifies the different type of people that make up the target population and work out the proportion of each group that makes the sample representative:
List and explain the 4 types of experiments
Lab experiments = conducted in highly controlled environments
Field experiments = conducted in real, everyday settings in the actual world
Natural experiments = the researcher takes advantage if a naturally occurring independent variable. The IV would have occurred whether it was being investigated or not
Quasi experiments = the researcher does not control the independent variable as it is a pre existing feature between participants ( age, gender, etc)
Evaluate lab experiments
+ high control of extraneous variables
+ accurate measure to are produces
+ standardised procedure so can be repeated
- demand characteristics cold occur
- the setting may lack ecological validity
Evaluate field experiments
+ high ecological validity
+ minimal demand characteristics as the participant is in their real life setting
- more difficult to control extraneous variables making repeats more difficult
- could be time consuming and expensive
Evaluate natural experiments
+ useful when studying phenomena that may be unethical to manipulate
+ no researcher bias as they have no control over the IV
- participants cannot be randomly allocated thee group therefore high chance of confounding variables occurring
Evaluate quasi experiments
+ iV cannot be manipulated as it just exists
+ often carried out in controlled environments
- it can only be used when there is a naturally occurring IV which is often hard to find
Define informed consent
- participants involved in studies should know what they are signing up for before they begin
- it involved making all participants aware of the aims of the research, procedures and rights
- they must know what their data will be used for
- participants must have the ability to make an informed judgement
Define right to withdraw
- participants must be able to opt out of the investigation at any point
- this includes the ability to withdraw their data that had already been collected.
Define deception
- Deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants at any stage of the investigation
- if all adequate information hasn’t been given to participants, they cannot give informed consent
- however there are occasions when deception is justifiable if the participant isn’t caused any undue distress
Define protection from harm
- participants should not be placed in a situation that puts them in any more danger than they would be in everyday life
- they should be protected from all physical and psychological harm
-the participants should not be made to feel inadequate or embarrassed
Define privacy and confidentiality
- participants must have the right to control info about themselves which is the right to privacy
- if this is invaded, confidentiality should be protected
- confidentiality is the right to have all personal data protected
What are the 5 ethical issues
- privacy and confidentiality
- deception
- protection from harm
- informed consent
- right to withdraw
What is listed in the code of ethics
- respect
- competence
- responsibility
- integrity
Definition of ethical issues
A conflict between the rights of the participants and the aims of the investigator.
What are the features of a consent form?
- explains what will happen and what the participants will be asked to do
- researcher aims
- how long it will take
- reminder that they can withdraw at any time
- ‘do i have your consent’ tick box
- signature, date, name
What are the 3 alternative ways of getting consent
- presumptive consent
- prior general consent
- retrospective consent
Define presumptive consent
A similar group of people are asked if the study is acceptable, if it id agreed then it is presumed that the consent of other participants will be given.
Define prior Genaral consent
Participants consent to a series of different of investigations, one that involves deception. it is then taken that they are consenting to be deceived
Define retrospective consent
They are asked after they have already taken part for consent
What is mentioned in a debrief
- occurs at the end of an experiment
- contains the true details of an experiment including all aims the existence of other experimental groups and all conditions
- participants are told what their data will be used for and are given the right to withdraw their data
- participants may require counselling which must be provided
List features of a questionnaire
-set of written questions, designed to collect information
- always pre-determined ( structures)
- used to assess the dependent variable
Advantages of questionnaires
- they can be used for many people multiple times, which is quick and cheap
- respondents may feel more comfortable to reveal more personal confidential information
- it reduces experimenter bias which is found in interviews
Disadvantages of questionnaires
- they can only be filled out by those who can read and write
- questionnaires are only closed questions, so responses are limited but they are easier to summarise.
4 features of a good written question
- clarity
- jargon (technical terms only familiar to those in a specialised area)
- avoids bias
- clear analysis
What are the 3 types of interviews
- structured interviews
- unstructured interviews
- semi- structured interviews
Structured interview evaluation
+ easily repeated as questions are standardised
+ different people can be easily compared
+ answers are easier to analyse
- interviewer bias
Evaluate unstructured interviews
+ more detailed information can be obtained
- requires interviewer with more skill
- questions may lack objectivity dues to quick nature of creating questions
- more expensive due to need for interviewer experience
Define case studies
an in depth investigations of a single person, group or event. typically data is gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods
Advantages of case studies
+ in depth - provides rich qualitative information
+ good insight for further research is provided
+ ethical, so prevents impractical or unethical investigations
Disadvantages of case studies
- no repeats so low reliability
- difficult to establish change as the person is usually studied after the event
- generalisation of results is difficult to a wider population
- researcher bias may occur as they build a personal relationship with the person
- time consuming and expensive
Define pilot studies
Small scale run of the actual investigation, involving few participants. They can be run for experiments, self report measures and observations
Why are pilot studies used
- test the effectiveness of the experiment and make improvements before the larger version is carried out
- allows time for psychologists to identify issues early- saving time and money
Evaluate structured observations
+ numerical data is produced so is easy to analyse
+ potentially be quicker to carry out
- cannot record and behaviour that they haven’t thought of in advance so unexpected behaviour must be observed
Evaluate unstructured observation
+ more detailed
- qualitative data is produced which is difficult to compare
- subjective so is more likely to suffer from observer bias
Evaluate event sampling observation
+ useful when target behaviour is infrequent
- difficult to carry out over long periods of time
- difficult to record “long behaviours” that last for unspecific amounts of time
Evaluation of time sampling observations
+ more practical for frequent behaviour when recording over long periods of time
+ easier to read ‘ long behaviours’
- may miss infrequent behaviours
Define naturalistic observation
The behaviour is observed within the setting in which it would naturally occur
Define controlled observation
The behaviour is observed within a structured environment where some variables can be managed
Define participant observation
Observer joins in with participants and the behaviour being observed
Define non- participant observations
The observer stays separate from the behaviour and observes from a distance
Define covert observation
The participants are unaware of the observers presence
Define overt
He participants are fully aware of the observers presence
What makes a study a quasi experiment
The independent variable is pre existing and cannot be changed, it is naturally occurring to the ppt and has no influence from the researcher
Evaluate stratifies sampling
+ avoids researcher bias
+designers to be representative of the population
- time consuming
-difficult to achieve
Define time-sampling observation
recording behaviour with a pre-established time frame with a behavioural checklist
EG: every 5 minutes record behaviour against the behavioural checklist
Define event sampling observation
counting the number of times the event (particular behaviour ) occurs.
What is concurrent validity
Assessing concurrent validity involves comparing a new test with an existing test (of the same nature) to see if they produce similar results. If both tests produce similar results, then the new test is said to have concurrent validity.
How to improve the concurrent validity of a questionnaire
- compare the 2 questionnaires and note and differences ( then remove/ change any questions that produce different answers to the original)
- ensure the questionnaires don’t use jargon
- make sure there is no ambiguity within the questions
- make sure it isn’t uni-directional
- add distract or questions to prevent ppts from guessing the aims
